International Law

INTERNATIONALlaw was generally formulated to maintain international order to protect the sovereignty of the states .The states were primarily the subjects of international law the principal bearers of rights and obligations according to Higgins (1994:40) international law only exist to states ....The existence of international law was primarily maintenance of Peace and and stability based on mutual respect for each state's territorial integrity and domestic jurisdiction:issues of distributive justice and the protection of basic human rights (liberty,freedom and the right of self pursuit and happiness)

The only question that can be asked is if the existence of international law is effective to manipulative and destructive leaders of states and the states themselves.Although

states are still at the heart of international law system individual groups and organizations are increasingly becoming recognized subjects of international Law.The development of of an expansive body of international human rights law supported by evolving mechanisms of enforcement,has given individuals as well as some collectives such as minority actors clear rights under international Law.

Impact of International systems on political and economic stability, living standards and social /cultural interaction between different societies.

The aspects of globalization has influenced different states of the world to be interlinked operating as one in terms of economy, politics and environmental stability .This essay is going to discuss international systems and it’s various components if they function effectively focusing on their impact on political and economic stability, living standards and social and cultural interaction between different societies.

International system has become very imperative in the world we live in as globalization is at its peak, globalization has led to the creation of international systems they operate within the globe. Globalization according to Baylis and Smith (8:2005) it is a process of increasing interconnectedness between societies such that the events of the world more and more have effects on peoples and societies far away. According to Spiegel, Taw, Wehing and Williams (7:2005) the “international systems” is a comforting expression which assumes that international relations can be described according to a single unifying logic which inspires the actions of well –identified action. The international system comprise of various actors that perform different functions they are certain procedures and behavioral tendencies that the actors must adhere to or follow because any action is of global concern.

According to Rourke (57:1993) an international system is comprised of various aspects, the Nation State which is a state with a territorially based political organization that claims and is generally accorded sovereignty, the supranational actors which are composed of individual countries as members, have organizational authority at least theoretically supercede the sovereignty of it’s individual members an example of the high international order. Examples of these supranational actors or intergovernmental actors they are the General Purpose Universal Organizations like the UN and Regional Organization like the AU and Alliances like the NATO and lastly the transnational actors MNCs (multinational companies) and non intergovernmental actors the NGOs. These actors play a vital role in influencing the political, economic, living standards and cultural interaction between societies.

Various actors of the International systems have shown to a greater extent that they have their benefits and disadvantages in their operations. The existence of these actors such as the supranational actors, composed of regional organizations which are also called General Purpose Universal organizations, the UN in particular which was founded in 1945 has adequately managed to function and address the concerns of citizens from all parts of the globe. This organization according to Baylis and Smith (406;2005) which is composed of various countries with a number of 192 countries in its membership thus like all the countries in the world, in the international system the United Nations has managed to function effectively in terms of international politics. This can be noted by the global peace that prevails. According to Baylis and Smith (406:2005) the objectives of the United Nations are to maintain international peace and stability develop friendly relations among nations, cooperate in solving international problems, promoting respect of human rights and harmonizing the actions of nations.

These objectives have been fully achieved maintenance international peace and stability universal goal has been achieved for example the war in Liberia, Somalia and DRC the United Nations has managed to send peacekeeping forces and humanitarian aid. According to Baylis and Smith (115:2005) international forces are used in defiance of sovereignty of a state in order to protect humanitarian standards. The United Nations specialized agencies UNICEF, WHO, ILO, FAO and WTO to mention just a few have managed to function effectively to being sanity through out the world.

The most objective that have been more effective politically is to influence the policy decision making in the different states they by solving the international problems the Millennium Development Goals which were fully adopted by the countries show how this international actor has been successful in combating the international problems. According to Baylis and Smith (118; 2005) the effectiveness of the United Nations can be fully recognized in solving problems such as rebuilding failed states, supporting democratization, promoting human development, addressing HIV/AIDS and poverty and disease have made UN an indispensable resource, this has been good in enforcing homogeneity of polices which allows regional and international integration in strategic goals formulation.

Nevertheless of the positive impact of the intergovernmental actors politically they have brought the weakness in terms of the state operations according to Rourke (67; 1993) individual states policy no longer counts as policy homogeneity is now being followed by all the countries of the world. The failure of the international actors to control the USA national interest when they invaded Iraq in 2003 show how ineffective these international actors are, powerful states like the USA and Britain still control the world countries which is the creation of a bipolar system according to Baylis and Smith (406; 2005) the failure to get UN security Council authorization for the war in Iraq in 2003 shows how the UN is ineffective in dealing with international matters that affect the global peace and stability. In addition Rourke (442; 1993) the states sovereignty is now eroded as domestic economic including employment, inflation and overall growth, is heavy dependent on foreign markets ,imports of resources ,currency exchange rates, and a variety of international economic factor. The rise of free trade promoted by the intergovernmental organization is both a cause and result of international economic interdependence. This has been caused by the UN objective of promoting free trade and relations. Whilst the global peace and stability is begin threaten by civil conflict, humanitarian emergencies, human rights violations, poverty and inequality and tribal wars like those which led to Rwanda genocide the United Nations seems to be nonexistence as they are no permanent solution to these problems yet.

Economically the supernatural actors have contributed a lot to the international systems the World Bank and the IMF (international monetary Fund) which is a specialized agency of the United Nations according to Wittkopf and Kegley (153; 2000) the IMF purpose is to stabilize international monetary exchange rates it does so by influencing currency values and permitting members experiencing financial crises to recover by drawing foreign exchange from the IMF. Third world countries usually face economic problems and they are still developing in terms of infrastructure and economic growth the natural factors of droughts, famine and diseases make they operations of the economies so difficult that financial assistance will be of vital importance to upgrade the standards of the people so IMF and the world Bank act as the lender of the last resort when on country is threatened by economic melt down.
These actors have managed to improve the standards of living and to increase global participation and interaction of different cultures of the world through implementation of better policies initiated by all states for instance the Millennium Developmental Goals. Free Trade within the world has led to economic boost of other nations like Singapore and China according to The world Book Encyclopedia (233:2004) the world Trade Organization (WTO) aims to encourage the free flow of raw materials components finishened, finished products and services between countries. This has resulted in democratic relations between States hence the interaction between states.

The other intergovernmental are regional organizational actors such as the SADC, AU, EU and OAS are very much influential in maintaining regional peace and cooperation politically they have managed to address the problems of security, trade and democratization. This can be noted by the pivotal role played by SADC in the DRC civil war and the mediation of the conflict of political parties in Zimbabwe they by trying to bring peace and stability in the region and the world as whole as bad practice of politics can affect economy of the world. They help to promote regional economic development and economic integration among member states.

The ineffectiveness of the intergovernmental organizations economically and to the living standards can be noticed by the influence of this organizations in policy decision making that affect the countries negatively in their operations according to Rourke (67; 1993) the distribution of assets of power has not yet been achieved as power assets are the components of the national power that help to determines the country’s strength. The neo imperialist dependency created by these international actors have negative impacts to the third world countries as they are likely to suffer economically as the powerful states like the US control the world economy the recession of the 2009 originated form the USA so the strength of an individual states has shown how the intergovernmental organization are ineffective as they also depend of these powerful nations in their operations.

The threat to the existence of the nation state is now invertible due to the existence of the intergovernmental organizations. The failure to address the issues of the poverty and famine in the third World, with strict laundering policies of the World Bank and the IMF and heavy interests changed on the loans has worsened the situation of developing countries which in long term accumulated huge debts to these intergovernmental financial institutions, poor nations have not yet benefited form the functions of the international governments but have been left worse off with droughts turning into famine.

The nation state actors have been eroded their sovereignty as the international systems have dominated in the operations of the world politically, economically and socially according to Rourke (57:1993) a nation state actor is a territorially based political organization that claims and is generally accorded sovereignty. The weaker states have been left out in decision making and policy implementation intergovernmental actors are fueling the recolonization of the weaker states.

The non governmental organizations on the other hand have effectively addressed the concerns of the citizens from all parts of the globe politically they have managed to fight for women rights, human rights ,environmental protection, disarmament. Non governmental organization according to Baylis and Smith (435;2005) it is any group of people relating to each other regularly in some formal manner and engaging in collective action, provided that the activities are non-commercial and non violent and are not on behalf of a government. NGOs such as the Red Cross and Amnesty International have influenced the various governments across the world to have policies that are beneficial to human existence the living standards of the people around the world have been improved by NGOs humanitarian aid to war torn countries such as Somalia and the economic devastated counties of the world such as Zimbabwe the NGOs have distributed food, shelter, medication and water to the victims of the world devastated areas. Above all the non governmental organizations have been a source of link to supernatural organization such as the UN for its specialized agencies to take action.

The existence of the nongovernmental organization has according to Wittkopf and Kegley (162;2004) the NGOs have shaken the sovereignty of states governments over their foreign policies ,this has been severe in fragile of falling states where the revolt of NGOs has led to the collapse of the state and even led to the devolution of the central government power. NGOs in many states have been involved in the internal affairs of the states they have influenced regime change in states were government refuse to follow their policies. In addition according to Wittkopf and Kegley (162:2004) NGOs are making the borders porous and vulnerable both to external pressures and challenges from within their boundaries led to erosion of the state sovereignty.

Transnational actors have led to the development of infrastructure in the states they operate in led to economic growth and creation of employment in third world countries hence the improvement standards of living better housing, roads and health. According to Wittkopf and Kegley (173:2004) multinational companies advocates for liberal free trade and are active contributors to the globalization of the world. Transnational companies such as Shell, BP and Anglo American have been major facilitators of economic growth is the countries they host their operations. Transnational actors have many attributes that benefit the state they host their operations mostly of these transnational actors are located in the third world countries according to Baylis and Smith (433:2005) companies have their own interests of expanding their production ,rising the market share and maximizing their operations this will be accorded to the governments economic growth and employment.

Transnational Banks and MNCs according to Wittkopf and Kegley (173:2004) redistributes wealth in the world economy ,contributing to economic development in some states and stagnation in other they mainly focus on the development of the rich states by spreading the negative rewards of globalization of inequality and inequitably wealth distribution.

The negative impact of the transnational actors have mainly been on culture and political grounds Held and McGrew (198:2000) the world states culture have been eroded and promotion of westernization, McDonaldization and Coca colonization have been a way of influencing culture homogenization through out the world this has led to states losing their identity and historical background. The issue of sovereignty has been crucial as the states are losing their control in decision making and policy implementation. According to Baylis and Smith (430; 2005) two of the most important attributes of sovereignty, control over currency and control over the currency and control over foreign trade have been diminished due to the presence of these transnational actors. The governments have to loss sovereignty over economic issues and development.

As many of the transnational companies are owned by the west and the US this have led to the powerful states extending their national interests in other states this can be shown by the control of oil reserves in the Middle East by the US government through their transnational companies. According to Baylis and Smith (431:2005) the US control of TNCs leads to extraterritoriality by which the governments attempts to exercise it’s legal authority in the territory of another state with the use of domestic law to control the global activities. These transnational companies can be involved in illicit trading of arms, drugs, stolen goods and exploitation of women they have operations that maybe illegal like the environmental degradation due to the lack of government policies on environmental protection in favor of economics growth objectives.

Despite that they have been a great concern in national politics and international politics on how the international systems operate, with the negative impact of their operations in individual sates and internationally. The international systems have functioned well to strengthen economies of the countries and increasing interaction between countries as well as political relations among states and improving the living standards of the people through out the world due to these international systems the globalization process possible.


Tendai Mazingaizo

Bibliography

Baylis J and Smith S 2005 The Globalization of world Politics 3rd edition Oxford University Press USA

Held D. and McGrew A. 2000 The Global transformation Reader Blackwell Publishers Inc USA


Rourke J T 1993 International Politics on the world stage 4th edition The Duskin Publishing Group Inc USA

Splegel S.LTaw J.M, Welting F.L and Williams K.P: (2004) :Reading the world of Politics A new Era: Thomson Learning Inc USA


The World Book Encyclopedia: 2004: World Book Inc USA

Wittkopf E.R and Kegley C.W Jr: 2004: World Politics trend and Transformation: Thomson Learning Inc USA

In you own opinion, do the International system and its various components function effectively, and does it adequately address the concerns of citize

What accounts for the differences in the wealth between rich and poor countries?

Kendall(2005, P 270) defines modernization theory as “a perspective that links global inequality to different levels of economic development and suggest that low-income economies can move to middle- and high-income economies by achieving self-sustained economic growth”. According to Rostow, all countries go through four stages, in which very little social change takes place, take-off stage, a period of economic growth accompanied by a growing belief in individualism, competition and achievement in the society, technological maturity, this is a period of improving technology, reinvesting in new industries, and embracing the belief, values and social institution of the high-income, developed nation; and the phase of high mass consumption, which is accompanied by a high standard of living. Kendall (2005, P 274) further defines dependency theory as “the belief that global poverty can at least partially be attributed to the fact the low-income countries have been exploited by the high-income countries”. In this essay I’m going to explain what accounts for the difference in wealth between rich and poor countries and I will be using the two theories that I have defined above to elaborate why I think there’s a difference between rich and poor countries.

“According to the modernization theory, the low-income, less developed nations can improve their standard of living only with a period of intensive economic growth and accompanying changes in people’s beliefs, values, and attitude toward work” (Kendall, 2005, P 270). One of the largest barriers to development in low-income nations was the traditional cultural values people held, in particular the beliefs that are fatalistic in sense that they believe that a situation that a situation cannot change and cannot be avoided, especially the bad ones. In cases like this people do not see any need to work in order to improve their lot in life, which result in their countries being poor because they’re afraid of change and new challenges while in contrast while in contrast the so called rich countries live in a modern way, they challenge their norms when they’re getting in their way of success particularly in business affairs. Unlike the traditional society achievement are associated with the basis of achieved skills and work in the modern society. According to the modernization theory the poor countries “can improve their standards of living only with a period of intensive economic growth and accompanying changes in people’s belief, values, and attitude toward work” (Kendall, 2005, P 270). In poor countries “material development has been swift, but social and cultural adjustment, which takes much longer, has lagged behind” (Popenoe, 1995, P 502). Poor countries which I would refer to as Third World countries religious orientation and attitudes toward work and even toward prosperity make these nation less responsive to industrialization which Kendall(2005, P 690) defines as “the process by which society are transformed from dependence on agriculture and hand-made products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries”. Another factor that makes Third World economic development distinctive is the serious problem of overpopulation in this part of the world. Many developing countries were already overpopulated when they first began to industrialize, and every step of economic growth has been matched by a jump in population. In other words, sharp increases in population have kept per capita income unchanged even though national productivity has risen. Unfortunately Third World countries often lack the political stability and popular support that they need in order to carry out their ambitious plans. Third World countries often lack the political stability and popular support that they need in order to carry out their ambitious plans, they also lack adequate numbers of highly skilled and motivated professionals and technicians, such as engineers, managers, doctors, without whom economic development is likely to succeed. And Third World’s nation states are still very young, for example, “most of Africa’s nation did not become independent until the 1960s, and many are still in the process of establishing their legitimacy, most lack cultural cohesion as well as economic stability, and a few development” (Popenoe, 1995, P 503). Whilst on the other hand rich countries have lots of skilled professionals that maintain the economic development.

Many of today’s poor countries are the former colonies whose economic and political structures were once controlled by foreign powers. Although most colonialism has ended, “the nations of the poor countries find themselves locked up into yet another foreign-dominated system, the complex web of global economic and political interdependence”(Popenoe, 1995, P 503). The poor countries seem to have little if any opportunity for self –determination than they had when they were actually colonies. The rich countries are in effect preventing economic development from occurring in the poor countries, they have maintained indirect control over the economic and political life of their former colonial possessions. Little was done to help the poor countries become self-efficient. As a result these societies (of the poor nations) cane to depend on the export of a small number of raw materials and needed to import almost all manufactured goods. When colonial rule ended, very little changed for most Third World people (people in the poor countries).”In recent decades, the advanced capitalist nations have thus shifted their objective from the establishment of new colonies to the attempt to continue to exploit as many of the resources of their former colonies as possible” (Popenoe, 1995, P 503). They do this according to the viewpoint of dependency theory which I defined above in the introduction. Dependency theorists see the greed of the rich countries as a source of increasing impoverishments of the poorer nations and their people. The poor nations are trapped in a cycle of structural dependency on the richer nations due to their need for infuses of foreign capital and external markets for their raw materials, making it impossible for the poor nations to pursue their own economic and human development plans. Kendall(2005, P 274) further states that for this reason, dependency theorists believe that countries such as Brazil, Nigeria, India and Kenya cannot reach sustained economic growth patterns of more advanced capitalist economies. Development in the poor countries will be assisted by innovation transferred from rich countries.

In conclusion I will sum up by saying that dependency theory states that global poverty can at least partially be attributed to the fact that the low-income countries have been exploited by the high-income countries, whereas modernization theory focuses on how societies can reduce inequality through industrialization and economic development. “Dependency theory makes a positive contribution to our understanding of global poverty by noting that underdevelopment isn’t necessarily the cause of inequality between the poor countries and the richer countries, Instead it points out that exploitation not only for one country by another but of countries by transnational corporations may limit or retard economic growth and human development in some nations” (Kendall, 2005, P 274),


Reference:

Ø Kendall D (2005) Sociology in our times, USA, Thomson Wardsworth
Ø Popenoe D (1995) Sociology, USA, Prentice Hall


















What accounts for the differences in the wealth between rich and poor countries?

Kendall(2005, P 270) defines modernization theory as “a perspective that links global inequality to different levels of economic development and suggest that low-income economies can move to middle- and high-income economies by achieving self-sustained economic growth”. According to Rostow, all countries go through four stages, in which very little social change takes place, take-off stage, a period of economic growth accompanied by a growing belief in individualism, competition and achievement in the society, technological maturity, this is a period of improving technology, reinvesting in new industries, and embracing the belief, values and social institution of the high-income, developed nation; and the phase of high mass consumption, which is accompanied by a high standard of living. Kendall (2005, P 274) further defines dependency theory as “the belief that global poverty can at least partially be attributed to the fact the low-income countries have been exploited by the high-income countries”. In this essay I’m going to explain what accounts for the difference in wealth between rich and poor countries and I will be using the two theories that I have defined above to elaborate why I think there’s a difference between rich and poor countries.

“According to the modernization theory, the low-income, less developed nations can improve their standard of living only with a period of intensive economic growth and accompanying changes in people’s beliefs, values, and attitude toward work” (Kendall, 2005, P 270). One of the largest barriers to development in low-income nations was the traditional cultural values people held, in particular the beliefs that are fatalistic in sense that they believe that a situation that a situation cannot change and cannot be avoided, especially the bad ones. In cases like this people do not see any need to work in order to improve their lot in life, which result in their countries being poor because they’re afraid of change and new challenges while in contrast while in contrast the so called rich countries live in a modern way, they challenge their norms when they’re getting in their way of success particularly in business affairs. Unlike the traditional society achievement are associated with the basis of achieved skills and work in the modern society. According to the modernization theory the poor countries “can improve their standards of living only with a period of intensive economic growth and accompanying changes in people’s belief, values, and attitude toward work” (Kendall, 2005, P 270). In poor countries “material development has been swift, but social and cultural adjustment, which takes much longer, has lagged behind” (Popenoe, 1995, P 502). Poor countries which I would refer to as Third World countries religious orientation and attitudes toward work and even toward prosperity make these nation less responsive to industrialization which Kendall(2005, P 690) defines as “the process by which society are transformed from dependence on agriculture and hand-made products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries”. Another factor that makes Third World economic development distinctive is the serious problem of overpopulation in this part of the world. Many developing countries were already overpopulated when they first began to industrialize, and every step of economic growth has been matched by a jump in population. In other words, sharp increases in population have kept per capita income unchanged even though national productivity has risen. Unfortunately Third World countries often lack the political stability and popular support that they need in order to carry out their ambitious plans. Third World countries often lack the political stability and popular support that they need in order to carry out their ambitious plans, they also lack adequate numbers of highly skilled and motivated professionals and technicians, such as engineers, managers, doctors, without whom economic development is likely to succeed. And Third World’s nation states are still very young, for example, “most of Africa’s nation did not become independent until the 1960s, and many are still in the process of establishing their legitimacy, most lack cultural cohesion as well as economic stability, and a few development” (Popenoe, 1995, P 503). Whilst on the other hand rich countries have lots of skilled professionals that maintain the economic development.

Many of today’s poor countries are the former colonies whose economic and political structures were once controlled by foreign powers. Although most colonialism has ended, “the nations of the poor countries find themselves locked up into yet another foreign-dominated system, the complex web of global economic and political interdependence”(Popenoe, 1995, P 503). The poor countries seem to have little if any opportunity for self –determination than they had when they were actually colonies. The rich countries are in effect preventing economic development from occurring in the poor countries, they have maintained indirect control over the economic and political life of their former colonial possessions. Little was done to help the poor countries become self-efficient. As a result these societies (of the poor nations) cane to depend on the export of a small number of raw materials and needed to import almost all manufactured goods. When colonial rule ended, very little changed for most Third World people (people in the poor countries).”In recent decades, the advanced capitalist nations have thus shifted their objective from the establishment of new colonies to the attempt to continue to exploit as many of the resources of their former colonies as possible” (Popenoe, 1995, P 503). They do this according to the viewpoint of dependency theory which I defined above in the introduction. Dependency theorists see the greed of the rich countries as a source of increasing impoverishments of the poorer nations and their people. The poor nations are trapped in a cycle of structural dependency on the richer nations due to their need for infuses of foreign capital and external markets for their raw materials, making it impossible for the poor nations to pursue their own economic and human development plans. Kendall(2005, P 274) further states that for this reason, dependency theorists believe that countries such as Brazil, Nigeria, India and Kenya cannot reach sustained economic growth patterns of more advanced capitalist economies. Development in the poor countries will be assisted by innovation transferred from rich countries.

In conclusion I will sum up by saying that dependency theory states that global poverty can at least partially be attributed to the fact that the low-income countries have been exploited by the high-income countries, whereas modernization theory focuses on how societies can reduce inequality through industrialization and economic development. “Dependency theory makes a positive contribution to our understanding of global poverty by noting that underdevelopment isn’t necessarily the cause of inequality between the poor countries and the richer countries, Instead it points out that exploitation not only for one country by another but of countries by transnational corporations may limit or retard economic growth and human development in some nations” (Kendall, 2005, P 274),


Reference:

Ø Kendall D (2005) Sociology in our times, USA, Thomson Wardsworth
Ø Popenoe D (1995) Sociology, USA, Prentice Hall

Do interest groups have positive or negative influence on the outcome of the US elections?

The United States of America has one of the most liberal democratic and oldest constitutions in the world formed on September 17 1787. Within the political divide in US there are influential factors that affect the outcome of elections such as interest groups. This essay will elucidate and explain why interest groups in United States of America have a positive and a negative impact on the outcome of elections.

According to Robertson (1985:159) interest groups are associations formed to promote a sectional interest in the political system thus trade unions, professional associations, employer’s organizations and motoring organizations. These interest groups have strong ties with the political environment in which they operate in they influence the political systems to suit their interests as their main objective is to fulfill the goals why they where created. Delury and Kaple (1999:1201) quotes Alexis de Tocqueville an American observer of political systems as he noted that in 1835 Americans tend to from associations that where for the purpose of pursuing and protecting there individual interests. The existence of the interests groups in America since 1835 has influence the outcome of the elections for instance of the election of the congress which is very vital for policy implementation, as well in the presidency, by endorsement of the candidates. According to Mclean (1996;244 ) he states that in the United States interests groups pay close attention to influencing congress, sometimes producing the so called iron triangles comprising interest groups ,congressional subcommittees and bureaucratic agencies.

The presence of interests groups has positively affected the election outcome according to Heywood (2002; 277) interest groups have managed to strengthen representation by articulating interests and advancing view that are ignored by political parties and by providing a means of influencing the government during election period. The interest groups have managed to educate the electorate on the dangers of electing a government that has bad policy implementation into power there presentation of sectional political interests has provided a platform for individual freedom and the right to exercise liberty . The electorate is likely to vote for a party or a candidate that is supported by various interests groups as they represent the people’s will. The various interest groups such as National Rifle Association (NRA) and American Association of Retired People (AARP) during election time manage to mobilize electoral majority to go and vote. During campaign periods in US various corporate groups, labour unions, ideological groups and professional groups managed to mobilize the electoral majority to vote, the purpose of electoral mobilization is to allow the voters to excises there right to vote and be part of the decision making process of the elected government which will lead to a more democratic government with better policies.

To gain the support of the Congress, interest groups campaign for individual members. The election finance laws in American politics show how important the interest groups are. Finance laws stipulate the amount an individual or companies can sponsor an election interest groups have no limit on their contributions they are registered under the US tax code which permits them to engage in political activity or raising money for political candidates without the regulations from the Federal election Commission. Election outcome is influenced in way that the political parties always get the support form interest groups to increase their support base which automatically leads to increased votes. Mostly importantly the interest groups according to Heywood (2002; 277) they broaden the scope of political participation and by providing an alternative to conventional party politics and by offering opportunities for grassroots activism, instead of politics begin confined to politicians only, the US interest groups allows the electorate participation as they can influence through institutional relationships that exist between the political parties or government bodies to make policies that suit their objectives. According to Magleby (1998; 1) the expanded role of interest groups marks the end from the one candidate centered campaigns so common in American politics.

Interests groups can now participate in politics by endorsing their candidates and campaign for them in they represent the interests of the political groups. The interest groups are important for the communicating vote information to the electorate through TV ads and various means of media through media, electorates can be able to vote wisely. According Magleby (1998; 9) interest groups electioneering the media added responsibility to inform the public of the full range of campaign activities, including those by non candidate campaign entities. During the 2009 presidential election various modes of media we used by the interest groups not to endorse there candidates and attacking candidates but to provide knowledge of the electorate no why it important to vote especially for their endorsed candidates. The most importantly they create a good environment for elections as they enforce the legislature to implement policies that govern elections.

Lastly according to Heywood (2000; 277) the interest groups promote debate and discussion thus creating a better uniform and a more educated electorate and improving quality of public policy. Candidate from various parties and candidates are forced to engage in debates on how they will improve the lives of the society and the states when elected into power this allows the electorate to determine which party or candidate to vote for due to this elections in US are very much unpredictable it depends on the candidate manifesto and his wisdom to get the votes. In contrary they are negative influences that the interest groups have on the outcome of elections in US. Heywood (2002:277) states that interests groups entrench political equality by strengthening the voice of the wealth and privileged those who have access to financial, education organizational or other resources. This can be explained by the Obama race to the presidency 2008 to 2009 and Bush’s 2000 bid for presidency, business and institutional groups supported and endorsed them as candidates for presidency, interest groups funded their campaigns, a candidate with most campaigning funds is likely to win.

Democracy is not achievable when the rich control the poor to vote for their individual interests those elected into power will definitely implement policies that suit those of the interest groups to compensate for the donations during the campaigning process. According to Wilson (2003;132) the decay of political parties in recent decades has been paralleled by the vast proliferation of organized interest groups or lobbies leading to a two party system that makes voters reluctant to waste votes on minor parties. The electorates are restricted to vote for the most major parties thus the Democratic Party and the Republican Party in the US, with the most liberal democracy in the world America is slowly changing from a multi party state into a two party system State. During the campaign of Presidency 2008 to 2009 in the US the Democratic nominee Obama had the massive support of the interest groups the campaign contributions form these interest groups meant his opponents where facing an unfair campaign race for presidency as much of the wealthy interest groups were in the support of him. Interest groups enables to unfair campaign process in the election period. According to Magleby (2000;1)campaigning spending by the interest groups in the guise of issue "advocacy" has also grown dramatically in the recent elections cycles and has given the political parties a new argument to use when raising soft money.

Voters are no longer aware of who really want their votes the political parties or the interest groups. Due to interest group intervention in politics, political parties in the election period spend a lot of their time trying to respond public criticism this affects the campaigning hence would affect the electorate vote for the political parties if the electorate is brainwashed and induced with falsehoods against other party. The criticism by interest groups is for the defeat of candidates they oppose in which they convince members to vote for a specific candidate in an election. According to Mangleby (2000; 8) Parties in US use millions of dollars to respond to well financed attacks against their party candidates by interest groups. The fear of interest groups targeting candidates has also meant candidates have cooperated with their parties in the surge in soft money fund raising and spending. According to Heywood (2000:277) the interest groups are socially and politically divisive in that they are concerned with the particular not the general and advance minority interest against the majority.

With wealthy interest groups influencing the outcome of elections in the US this means democracy is compromised as the majority interest will not be represented by the outcome of the elections. ln addition interest groups according to Heywood (2000;277) tend to make the policy process closed and more secretive by exerting influence through negotiations and deals that are in no way subject to public scrutiny.

The electorate in the US can vote during elections for parties that have links with interest groups that represent the minority. Most of these factors lead to electorates unwilling to vote hence suppressed indirectly by interest groups. Interest groups in USA can be involved in demobilizing the electorates due to the propaganda they air on ads and radio with strong financial backbone the demobilizing affects the election results In conclusion the American elections remain the most democratic elections in the world as it allows different interest groups to participate in the election process. Democracy is achieved when the voice is given to individuals as well as different groups. Modern elections should be conducted when there is more intervention of the public and to allow the electorate to decide on who to vote for with the help of the interest groups.

Bibliography

D Robertson (1985).A Dictionary of Modern Politics. Europa Publications G.E Delury and D.A Kaple (1999) .

World Encyclopedia of Political Systems and Parties .Facts On File lnc Heywood A. (2002).

Politics. London.

Palgrave I Mclean (1996) The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics .Oxford University Press. J

Q Wilson (2003) American Government .Houghton Mifflin Company

Is it possible to study politics objectively? Justify

Politics can be studied objectively if people can remove the mentalitythatpolitics involves corruption, injustice, oppression, violence,conflicts,and subjugation.lt is only in the good practice of politics that cancreatea different view of what it is at the current moment but it takes a lot to remove the bad views of what politics is, to the masses of people becausethey experience the bad side of politics every moment. Only with thein-depth study of what politics is that’s where the understanding is.Politics is in every human activity, for our every daily activities isnothing but politics itself .According to Heywood (2002: 21) hedefines:politics as the activity through which people make, preserve and amendthegeneral rules under which they live, As such, it is an essentially social activity, inextricably linked, on the other hand to the existence of diversity and conflict and on the other to a willingness to cooperate and act collectively. Politics is better seen as a search for conflict resolution than as it’s achievement, as not all conflicts are, or can be resolved. Therefore politics govern our way of conduct in the society and how to live together in peace which involves conflict resolutions.

Politics has been defined in many different ways. Heywood elaborates thatAristotle declared that ‘man is by nature a political animal” by thishemeant men can only from a just society and good community through apolitical community”(2002:8).South Africa have the judiciary system that was formed through political influence, though voting into power members ofthe parliament that are able to makes laws for the country, this provesthat politics is essential to the existence of a just society and good life where people practice full freedom of expression and the right to vote.Politics encourages people participation in decision making this is being practiced in South Africa, where people are going to polls in April2009 to vote for the President of their choice in the parties contesting.Heywoodquotes Rousseau as he argued that “only through the direct andcontinuousparticipation of all citizens in political life can the state be boundtothe common good or what he called the “general will” (2002:46) Politics involve the people in decision making although the people voted intopowerfocus on their personal needs and selfish ambitions that do not involve the people who voted for them.

According to Heywood politics can be defined as” compromise and consensus,this mean politics plays a pivotal role in decision making and resolving conflict that exist in a state thus conciliation and negotiation ratherthan force” (2002:7). Politics enables decision making in South Africamostof the decisions about national building are made in the parliament bypoliticians for example the national budget that was presented by his honorable finance minister Trevor Emmanuel. National interests are presented before the politicians for them to make decisions on behalfofthe people they represent although politicians tend to misrepresent thepeople’s interests in parliament. In South Africa politicians tend topreach what they will never do; they only want the people’s vote duringelection time, this bad practice of politics results in negativethoughtabout the politicians themselves.

Politics involves the fair allocation of resources within a state that does not result in conflict, it enables the central decision making to bemadeby one board thus the parliament, this results in quick decision making in times of need. According to Heywood politics enables a political solution that implies peaceful debate and arbitration as opposed to what isoftencalled a “military solution” (2002:7).The important role by the SouthAfrican government and the former president Thabo Mbeki to be the mediator between the conflicting parties of Zimbabwe ZANU PF and the MDC showstheimportance of politics in decision making as they were able to come up with solutions to resolve the crisis. Heywood quotes Crick as he portrayed politics “the solution of the problem of order which chooses conciliation rather than violence and coercion (2000:30).
Heywood also defines “politics as power, that it takes place at everylevelof the societies”(2002:10).Through politics South Africans have managed to achieve their hopes and aspirations this can be dated back in 1994 when South Africa was freed from the Apartheid system and be able to practice their right to vote. According to Heywood “politics is essence, power;the ability to achieve a desired outcome, through what ever means”(2002:10).Politics can make people and states achieve their goals but not necessarily in a good way, they are other brutal political causes.

However Heywood attacks politics as “associated with activities of politicians which are often seen as power seeking hypocrites who conceal personal needs and ambition behind the rhetoric of public services”(2002:7)ln South Africa we have a lot of politicians who focusabout their personal needs instead of the people who elected them into parliament some are involved in corruption activities that are at theexpense of the people.lt all because of politics why the people suffer,the apartheid system that existed prior 1994 was established by politicians whowere cunning ,cruel and manipulative. Heywood quotes Machiavelli “thestrictly realistic amount of politics drew attention to the use bypolitical leaders of cunning, cruelty and manipulation” (2002:7).

According to Heywood “defines politics as “dirty word” that conjures upimages of trouble, disruption and even violence on the other hand deceit,manipulation and lies on the other” (2002:4) South African politicians have some of the characteristics mentioned by Heywood as the deceive thewill ofthe people who elected them into power by not fulfilling the promises they made during the election time. According to Heywood (2002:7) he states that
The negative view of politics reflects the essentially liberal perception that as individuals is self interested, political power is corrupting because it encourages those in power to exploit their positions for personal advantage and at the expense of others.
Although politics is defined as power Heywood states that” the advocates ofpolitics as power are feminists and Marxists to the extent that women are not recognized in the world of politics” (2002:10).ln South Africa alothas been done to introduce women in the world of politics but a lot needs to be done because a lot of man are feminists they still have the traditional thinking that women can not rule or lead. According to Marxhereferred to “political power as merely the organized power of one class for oppressing another” (1967:57).ln South Africa we still have politicians who oppress the lower class people by not representing them fully inparliament thus stealing away their voice.

In conclusion the many ideologies makes it difficult to study politics objectively as we can only understand it through the concepts, models and theories in which some of them are biased. The study of politics isvitalin the world we live in as it makes us understand the causes of war,resources allocation, practice of power, and governance. According to Heywood “politics must be practiced within a frame work that checks and constraints than ensure that government power is not abused. SouthAfricaneeds to have an independent commission that deals with political misconduct by the politicians. It is imperative to study politics withapositive mind putting into consideration the benefits of having a good political system that leads to a democratic state with liberty,freedom,the right to vote and justice.

References

Bernard C (2000) In defiance of Politics .New York: Harmondsworth(place ofpublication)
Heywood A. (2002). Politics. London (place of publisher) Palgrave(publisher)

Jacques J (1913). The social Contract London (place of publication)ColeG.D.H (publisher)

Machiavelli M (1961). The Prince. Harmondsworth (place of publication).Penguin (publisher)

Marx k (1967). The Communist Manifesto. Harmondsworth (place ofPublication).Penguin (publisher)
Mills C.W. (1956). The power of the elite .New York (place ofpublication).Oxford University press (publisher)

political systems