ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR
“Organisation Behaviour is concerned with the study of what people do in an organisation and how that behaviour affects the performance of the organisation.”
(Robbins: 1998,9)
ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR
The study of Organisational Behaviour involves:
• consideration of the interaction among the formal structure (organisational context in which the process of management takes place)
• the tasks to be undertaken
• the technology employed and the methods of carrying out work
• the behaviour of people
• the process of management
• the external environment
ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR
Interrelated dimensions influencing behaviour:
• The Individual - working environment should satisfy individual needs as well as attainment of organisational goals.
• The Group - formal and informal. Understanding of groups complements a knowledge of individual behaviour.
• The Organisation - impact of organisation structure and design, and patterns of management, on behaviour.
• The Environment - technological and scientific development, economic activity, governmental actions.
IMPORTANCE OF MANAGEMENT THEORY
• What leading writers say is an important part of the study of management.
• It is necessary to view the interrelationships between the development of theory, behaviour in organisations and management practice.
• An understanding of the development of management thinking helps in understanding principles underlying the process of management.
• Knowledge of the history helps in understanding the nature of management and organisation behaviour.
• Many earlier ideas are still important and are often incorporated into more current management thinking.
1
MANAGEMENT THEORY
Theory provides a sound basis for action BUT
if the action is to be effective the theory must
be adequate and appropriate to the task and
to improved organisational performance.
MANAGEMENT THEORY
In theory, theory and practice are the same.
In practice, theory and practice are different.
From “LEADERSHIP ... with a human touch”
20 October 1998
DIVISION OF LABOUR
Definition:
“The extent to which the organisation’s work is separated into different jobs to be done by different people.”
(Moorhead and Griffin:1998,448)
DIVISION OF LABOUR
• Major purpose or function
• Product or service
• Location
• Nature of the work performed
• Common time scales
• Common processes
• Staff employed
• Customer or people to be served
DIVISION OF LABOUR
ADVANTAGES
• Efficient use of labour
• Reduced training costs
• Increased standardisation and uniformity of output
• Increased expertise from repetition of tasks
DISADVANTAGES
• Routine, repetitive jobs
• Reduced job satisfaction
• Decreased worker involvement and commitment
• Increased worker alienation
• Possible incompatibility with computerised manufacturing technologies
DIVISION OF LABOUR
Decisions on division of work should take
account of:
• the need for co-ordination
• the identification of clearly defined divisions of work
• economy
• the process of managing the activities
• avoiding conflict
• the design of work organisation should take account of the nature and interests of staff and job satisfaction.
DIVISION OF LABOUR
Mintzberg’s five basic elements of structure which
Serve as co-ordinating mechanisms for the work of
the organisation.
1. Mutual Adjustment
2. Direct Supervision
3. Standardisation of Work Processes
4. Standardisation of Work Output
5. Standardisation of Worker Skills
DIVISION OF LABOUR
ADVANTAGES OF CENTRALISATION
• Easier implementation of a common policy for the organisation as a whole.
• Prevents sub-units becoming too dependent.
• Easier co-ordination and management control.
• Improved economies of scale and a reduction in overhead costs.
• Greater use of specialisation, including better facilities and equipment.
• Improved decision-making which might otherwise be slower.
DIVISION OF LABOUR
ARGUMENTS AGAINST CENTRALISATION
• More mechanistic structure
• Lengthens scalar chain (number of different levels in the structure of an organisation).
DIVISION OF LABOUR
ADVANTAGES OF DECENTRALISATION
• Enables decisions to be made closer to the operational level of work.
• Support services will be more effective if they are closer to the activities they are intended to serve.
• Opportunities for training in management.
Tends to be easier to implement in private sector
organisations rather than the public sector -
accountability, regularity, uniformity.
DIVISION OF LABOUR
Six key elements to be addressed when designing
structure:
• Work Specialisation
• Departmentalisation
• Chain of Command (Scalar Chain)
• Span of Control (Number of subordinates reporting directly to a manager or supervisor.)
• Centralisation and Decentralisation
• Formalisation
CLASSICAL APPROACH
• Emphasis on purpose, formal structure, hierarchy of management, technical requirements and common principles of organisation.
• This perspective was concerned with structuring organisations effectively.
• Two major sub-groupings of this approach are:
o Bureaucracy
o Scientific Management (sometimes categorised as an approach in its own right)
CLASSICAL APPROACH
Major Contributors:
Henri Fayol
Linda Urwick
Max Weber – most
prominent of the three.
• Weber proposed a bureaucratic form of structure that he believed would work for all organisations.
• Embraced logic, rationality, efficiency.
CLASSICAL APPROACH
Weber’s Ideal Bureaucracy
• Job Specialisation
• Authority Hierarchy
• Formal Selection
• Formal Rules and Regulations
• Impersonality
• Career Orientation
Criticisms of Bureaucracy
• Lack of attention to the informal organisation.
• Restriction of psychological growth
• Bureaucratic dysfunction
CLASSICAL APPROACH
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
Emphasis on obtaining increased productivity from
individual workers through the technical structuring of
the work organisation and the provision of monetary
incentives as the motivator for higher levels of output.
Major Contributor - FW TAYLOR (1856 - 1917) - held
the view that there was a best working method by which
people should undertake their jobs.
CLASSICAL APPROACH
TAYLOR’S PRINCIPLES
• the development of a true science for each person’s work
• the scientific selection, training and development of the workers
• co-operation with the workers to ensure work is carried out in the prescribed way
• the division of work and responsibility between management and the workers.
CLASSICAL APPROACH
REACTIONS AGAINST SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
• opposition because its specific goal was to get more output from the workers
• argument that his incentive system would dehumanise the workplace
• inadequate views of employee motivation
• allegations that he falsified some of his research findings and paid someone to do his writing for him.
HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH
• During the 1920s, attention began to focus on social factors at work, groups, leadership, the informal organisation and behaviour of people.
• ‘Behavioural’ and ‘informal’ are alternative headings sometimes given to this approach.
• Turning point came with the famous Hawthorne experiments at the Western Electric Company in America (1924-32)
• One of the researchers (leader) was ELTON MAYO (1880-1949)
HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH
Four Main Phases to the Hawthorne Experiments
• The Illumination Experiments - level of production was influenced by factors other than changes in physical conditions of work.
• The Relay Assembly Test Room - attention and interest by management reason for higher productivity.
• The Interviewing Programme -20,000 interviews. Gave impetus to present-day personnel management and use of counselling interviews. Highlighted the need for management to listen to workers.
• The Bank Wiring Observation Room - Piecework Incentive Scheme. Group pressures stronger than financial incentives offered by management.
NEO-HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH
• Writers in the 1950s and 1960s who adopted a more psychological orientation.
• Major focus was the personal adjustment of the individual within the work organisation and the effects of group relationships and leadership styles.
• Main contributors: MASLOW, HERZBERG AND McGREGOR.
NEO-HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF HUMAN NEEDS
General Examples NEEDS Organisational Examples
Achievement SELF-ACTUALISATION Challenging Job
Status ESTEEM Job Title
Friendship BELONGINGNESS Friends in the Work
Group
Stability SECURITY Pension Plan
Sustenance PHYSIOLOGICAL Base Salary
NEO-HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH
HERZBERG isolated two different sets of factors affecting
motivation and satisfaction at work.
1. Hygiene or Maintenance Factors - concerned basically with job environment. Extrinsic to the work itself.
2. Motivators or Growth Factors - concerned with job content. Intrinsic to the work itself.
Goal of managers is to achieve a state of no dissatisfaction by
addressing Hygiene Factors. Task of improving motivation is
then by addressing the Motivators.
NEO-HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH
McGREGOR argued that the style of Management adopted is a
function of the manager’s attitudes towards human nature and
behaviour at work.
He put forward two suppositions called Theory X and Theory Y which
are based on popular assumptions about work and people.
NEO-HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH
THEORY X ASSUMPTIONS
• People do not like work and try to avoid it.
• People do not like work, so managers have to control, direct, coerce, and threaten employees to get them to work toward organisational goals.
• People prefer to be directed, to avoid responsibility, to want security, and have little ambition.
NEO-HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH
THEORY Y ASSUMPTIONS
• People do not naturally dislike work; work is a natural part of their lives.
• People are internally motivated to reach goals to which they are committed.
• People are committed to goals to the degree that they receive personal rewards when they reach their objectives.
• People will seek and accept responsibility under favourable conditions.
• People have the capacity to be innovative in solving organisational problems.
• People are bright, but generally their potentials are under-utilised.
SYSTEMS APPROACH
• Integration of the classical and human relations approaches. Attempts to reconcile the work of the formal and the informal writers.
• Importance of the socio-technical system.
• Attention is focused on the total work organisation and the interrelationships of structure and behaviour, and the range of variables within the organisation.
• The Systems Approach encourages managers to view the organisation both as a whole and as part of a larger environment.
CONTINGENCY APPROACH
• Best viewed as an extension of the systems approach.
• Highlights possible means of differentiating between alternative forms of organisation structure and systems of management.
• There is no one best design of organisation.
• Most appropriate structure and system of management is dependent upon the contingencies of the situation for the particular organisation.
Monday, May 24, 2010
If it is the case that, international /inter-state relations, the big powers often do what they like and the weak states often suffer the consequences
The existence of international law is primarily maintenance of peace and stability based on mutual respect for each state's territorial integrity and domestic jurisdiction: issues of distributive justice and the protection of basic human rights liberty, freedom and the right of self pursuit and happiness. The only question that can be asked is if the existence of international law is effective to contest manipulative and destructive leaders of states and the states themselves. The development of various institutions by the UN that govern the conduct of states and the enforcement of international law have to a large extent created stable environment between states but the weak states are begin alienated from the international community. The less significance of international law has made then more accountable to powerful nations not to the international community. This essay will elaborate and elucidate if international law matters in international relations or the big powers such as the United States does what they like and the weak states suffer the consequences.
International law was generally formulated to maintain international order to protect the sovereignty of the states .The states were primarily the subjects of international law the principal bearers of rights and obligations according to Higgins (1994:40) international law only exist to states. According to Baylis and Smith (2005:350) International law is the body of legal rules that apply between sovereign states and such other entities as have been granted international personality (status acknowledged by the international community).States in the international arena are expected to abide by the laws that govern there conduct but this has not always been the case in international relations as hegemonic states often violate the international laws without any reparations. Powerful nations such as America and Britain have repeatedly violated the international laws but they are not punished for it and weaker nations have been the most victims to the violation of international law.
International Law has set various institutions that are there to limit the acts of the states and regulate their behaviour. According to Brierly (59:1928) modern states under international law are perceived as equal entities that have absolute sovereignty. According to Hsiung (1997:8) international law can only exist only in an international system of nation states sovereign and know no higher authority where there is no vertical accountability only horizontal accountability between various units. But this has not been the case in the current international system as the powerful nations have displayed actions that make them look as if they are above the law. The doctrine of equality of states advocated by naturalist writes to international law according to Brierly (1928:66) is absolutely not certain in international order as states are politically unequal as is universally admitted and they also have unequal rights in international law. This can be noted that within the structures of the United Nations were the great powers posses a definite legal superiority over the other states by being allotted permanent seats on the Security Council. The actions of the United States as the hegemonic states in the international community have shown the insufficiency of international law to control its actions that defer international order.
According to Hsiung (1997; 11) if international law is so concerned with the international community order and the balance between community interests and the state sovereignty what about the realist assumption regarding the law incongruity with “national interests”. The powerful states always have a recourse open to them for the protection of their interests should international law be perceived as being inimical to them. Despite the United Nation’s goal of creating an equal environment for states to collaborate and co-operate the dominant nations always focus on the achievement of their national interests instead of the international community. Various statutes within international law and the ICC constitution have been violated by powerful nations but countries that do not possess political power and military power have been subjected to the severity of international law with its leaders being persecuted and tried in the International Court of Justice (ICJ).
Focusing on the acts of the United States of America will bring the full view of how powerful states often do what they like and the weaker nations often suffer the consequence of not abiding to international law. According to Hsiung (1997:17) the United States and the world reacted violently to the Iraq invasion of Kuwait in the summer of 1990 but this act could have been justified by the international community as the US jeopardize of the sanctity of international law perse because of its violation of the international law when it invaded Panama less then nine before in December 1989 which led to 4000 Panamanians being killed automatically led to counter violations by Iraq when invaded Kuwait. Panama invasion by the US was the violation of international law regarding the notion of sovereignty and non intervention that is enshrined in the international law statutes the US should have seek international community endorsement of the United Nations as the mother body that governs and enforces international law. These aggressive humanitarian intervention excuses by the United States to violate international law results in the many weaker nations struggling to develop after these militarily muscle demonstration wars. The US armed invasion also in Vietnam was also in opposition to the international law as this was a civil war and intervention in such an internal matter was illegitimate under international law but these nations suffered the most horrific incidents in history due to forcible humanitarian intervention that was illegal as millions perished and millions displaced in these brutal war times.
The US invasion of Iraq was not justified under International law according to Hsiung (1997:18) the invasion of Iraq in 2003 under the war against terror by the Bush administration, international law was totally against such acts as it undermined the state sovereignty and the right to self determination. To make situation worse the USA declared war on Iraq soil without the blessing of the United Nations as the international regime that spearhead and control that states abidance to international law. Or could this illegal invasion be linked to US interests of controlling the oil supply of the world under the notion of war against terror. Now Iraq is a war torn country that is finding it hard to stabilise with its economic apparatus now being controlled by the US companies. Such acts have demonstrated that powerful states are above the international law statutes that govern the conduct of states. International law is more of a rule oriented than an outcome oriented system as United Nations itself does not have authority and power designed to enforce international law.
Since international law governs the signing of treaties between nations the powerful nations have made sure that all treaties signed with them are at their own benefit to the expense of the weaker nations and they have often violated these treaties without facing prosecution. The US chose not to become part of the Convention of the law of seas (CLO111) of 1982 according to Hsiung (1997:15) because it undermined its private enterprise by requiring US private companies that mine seabeds to pay royalties to help Third world countries that countries could not afford such mining. The holding out increased Washington’s bargaining power so that other nations would renegotiate the terms of the treaty to accommodate the US interests such was done in 1994 the CLO111 was amended to accommodate the US interests. As international law advocates for equality among states its failure to govern the conduct of powerful nations have led to third world countries being treated unfairly to economic prospects and developmental prospects that has led to them being alienated in the international community.
The US as a dominant nation has passed unilateral sanctions on weak nations that failures to comply with its foreign policy. This has resulted in many states being controlled their internal affairs by the US government which to some extent is now the world government as it controls most of the international affairs. International regimes that oversee the relationship of the interdependence actors between landlocked and transit countries according to Hsiung (1997;147) have not benefited that poor nations as super powerful nations controls these institutions for their own interests the WTO,IMF and the World Bank have been used by powerful nations to force nations to give up their economic sovereignty. The US in 1992 according to Hsiung (1997:146) passed the Cuban Democracy Act in the bid to put Castroite Cuba to demonstrate, Washington began to interfere in the trade of other countries with Cuba, even trying to dictate trading practices to them.
International law unable to protect weak nations from belligerent acts by a powerful nations results in the weak nations being not sovereign entities in the international arena. Hsiung (1997:146) elaborates that US further passed the Helms Burton Act in 1996 which gave them powers to approach the UN Security Council in an effort to join America’s embargo against Cuba. At the present moment the unilateral sanctions being given to Zimbabwe by the US through the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act, 2001 (ZIDERA). Through this enactment Zimbabwe’s access to finance and credit facilities was effectively incinerated, is this not violation of self determination that is enshrined in the international law statutes. Imposition of sanctions should be left in the hands of international institutions such as the UN not another actor within the international community. Self determination has become external determination by the imposition of these unilateral sanctions to states that fails to democratize; territorial integrity has eroded by such actions.
The breach of human rights by the powerful nations in the international community has remained tacit. The US has violated international law on human rights and its prosecution has not come into picture as it is regarded as international government that can take unilateral actions that can not the opposed. According to Panst (2007:11) pictures of outrages abuse of detainees at Abu-Graid prison in Iraq in May 2004 demonstrated some of the worst horrific human rights abuse by the US, the prisons were stripped naked with hood placed in their heads and threatened with dogs. The Geneva Convention of international Human rights as well as the UN Charter on Human rights not only prohibits torture but intimidation during torture. The powerful states are able to violate international rights but if weak nations try international law will tumble down on them. The proposal to surrender the perpetrators of the September 11 to the international tribunal according to Byres and Noltle (2003:85) was along to lines of the Yugoslav and Rwanda tribunal was rejected by the USA which argued that it was under its territorial jurisdiction and tried them under their domestic laws. This clearly shows that powerful nations can defy the United Nations orders as well of the ICC without prosecution. Questions can be asked why the US never wanted to sign the ICC statute in December 2000 which makes surrender them surrender its nationals to the International Criminal Court. It is because they want to get away with human rights violations that it commits in the world in their military muscle wars they impose on weaker states. International law has not worked to protect citizens of the world from the superpowers actions that violates human rights in their quest to achieve national interest.
The United States have used the United Nations Security Council and another various institutions to fortify its foreign policies according to Condoleezza Rice in Byers and Nolte (2003;81) “United Sates interests are served by having strong alliances and can be promoted within the UN and other multilateral institutions organizations as well through well crafted international agreements”. The supremacy of the US has demonstrated that it can influence any actions that are not within the international law statutes to achieve its interests. Byers and Nolte (2003:157) further elaborates that the USA made use of the United Security Council which have provoked serious charges that it serves as a tool of US foreign policy rather as truly international organ.
Within that dispute Rourke (2005:279) argued that the non Western view of the international law is that the LDCs (Less Developed Countries) they had little or no role in determining the rules that govern the international system. These countries promote the notion of sovereignty but rejects aspects of international law as they mostly work to their disadvantage. The issue of property rights have been used to the disadvantage of the weaker countries Rourke (2005;278) gives an example of how the Western pharmaceutical firms have prevented the LDCs from access to technology that would enable them to produce HIV/AIDS drugs but whilst they have the claim to respond to the epidemic by producing the drugs themselves which is more important than western emphasis of property right. This conception within the international law has allowed hegemonic powers to interfere directly with the LDCs economic prospects, social goals and political goals making the notion of sovereignty unnecessary to govern the international system.
Compliance of the international law does not exist to powerful states, threat to use economic sanctions, imprisonment, and military intervention only applies to weaker nations while the powerfully built nations can violate international law without being held accountable. The most devastating violation of the international can be noticed when Nicaragua filed a case in 1984 with the ICJ charging the US support of the Contra rebels and its mining of the Nicaraguan harbours violated international law, the US argued that the charges were political and therefore the court had no jurisdiction when the ICJ ruled that it had jurisdiction in the case the Reagan administration in 1985 withdrew US consent to the optional clause Rourke (2005;275).This clearly shows that hegemonic powers of the US makes it above the international law.
If the US can have such influence what benefit is this multilateral institutions and the UN in upholding and protecting the aggressive nature of the superpower to attain its own national interests .The refusal of the of the US to ratify many treaties as Byers and Nolte (2003:90) propounds which are regarded as the cornerstone of the development of international law in particular the Comprehensive Test Treaty Ban, Treaty of Kyoto Protocol, the ICC Statute, Landmines Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Amended Convention of the Sea has demonstrated that the superpower can control the development of international Law and either opt out in the construction of international law. The significance of international law lacks without the hegemonic powers enforcing it to some extent but the weaker countries suffers from the bad practices of international law by the powerful nations.
The use of the US courts as international courts that enforces the international laws has resulted in weaker nations having no voice in the international community Byers and Nolte (2003:162) elaborates that United States is using it’s legislative and executive branches for the enforcement of law against other states hence has resulted in the Us courts to become important fora for suits of an international nature. If the US courts are becoming international courts then what is the significance of the international law. This has resulted in the international law to loss credibility, weaker states are now be controlled by the US judicial system instead of the ICJ (International Court of Justice) jurisdiction. Lack of enforcement is the most impediment of the effectiveness of international law countries are reluctant to follow the decisions of international counts and the UN Secretariat which is the ICJ executive branch does not have authority to influence the ICJ rulings Rourke (2005;276). This lack of enforcement has led to dominant powers to violate ICJ rulings that go against their national interests without being prosecuted.
Lastly the US as the hegemonic power has used certification mechanisms to control the other states. Byers and Nolte (2003:161) elaborates that certification mechanisms by the US has become a common tool for the US to define rules for other states and monitor observance in areas of arms control, environment protection, human rights , narcotise and terrorism. This has resulted in the US to create laws to monitor and its observance of other states whilst it remains unbound and unmonitored. Byers and Nolte (2003:161) furthermore elaborates that the US is particularly reluctant to subscribe to new international human rights obligations and accept international supervision but it is proactive when it comes to domestic tools for enforcement of human rights abroad. These powerful nations do often what they like in the international arena that sometimes results in the weaker nations often become targets of such actions that erodes their states integrity and determination.
In conclusion International law has been faced with a lot of challenges as most of the powerful states infringe international law and do not face legal prosecution from the USA military personnel that violated the human rights in Iraq, Vietnam, Afghanistan and Kuwait that are supposed to tried on the ICC for war crimes but remains untried because of their citizenship to the world dominant nations. The weak states have been the only actors in the international community that face prosecution and forcible intervention in case that falls under their jurisdiction, state sovereignty has been eroded the doctrine of state self determination has been violated by influential nations. However despite the many failures and restrictions of international law, material interdependence, especially among the states of equivalent power, may foster the growth of positive legal principles.
Bibliography
Hsiung J 1997 Anarchy and Order the Interplay of politics and law in international Relations Lynne Rienner Publishers London
Baylis J and Smith S 2005 The Globalization of world Politics 3rd edition Oxford University Press USA
Byers M and Nolte G 2003 US Hegemony and the Foundations of International Law
Higgins R. 1994 International Law and the Avoidance, Containment and Resolution of
Disputes Oxford: Oxford University Press United Kingdom
Rourke J T 2005 International Politics on the world stage 10th edition Duskin Publishing Group Inc Guilford USA
Panst J 2007 Beyond the law The Bush Administration’s unlawful Response in the “war” on Terror Cambridge University Press
Thursday, May 20, 2010
Outline the components of the debate on the transition from feudalism to capitalism?
The transition from feudalism to capitalism had been argued by different scholars who have propounded different methodologies on the transition from feudalism system into the capitalism system. This essay will outline the components of the debate on the transition from feudalism to capitalism.
The debate is centered on the Sweezy criticism of Dobb’s account of how the feudalism economic system evolution to capitalism. Sweezy’s criticism began with the sidelining of Dobb’s definition of the feudalism process according to Sweeyz in Hilton (2006; 33) criticized Dobb definition of feudalism as being virtually identical with serfdom instead of indentifying a system of production he further criticized that serfdom can exist in systems which are not clearly feudal. Sweezy says this definition is inadequate and that it may apply to Western European feudalism but shouldn't be generalized beyond that, as he accuses Dobb of doing.
In debate on the transition Sweezy according to Hilton (1976; 36) elaborates that Dobb on the theory of the decline of feudalism concentrated on the impact of commerce which was acting as an external force and developing outside the system that it finally overwhelms the transition from the old order to the new that finds the dominant causal sequences within the sphere of exchange between the manorial economy and the outside world. Dobb found out that the growth of money economy led to the intensification of serfdom as there is evidence that it was the cause of the feudal decline he also reasons that if the only factor at work in the Western Europe was the rise of trade eventually its intensification resulted in the disintegration of feudalism.
Paul Sweezy act in response to this by saying that Dobb most show that the feudal ruling class’s growing need for revenue and the flight of serfs from the land can both be explained in terms of forces operating inside the feudal system Hilton (1976:37). Sweezy continue to say that with regards to lords need for revenue put forward by Dobb is not clearly propounded. He says the size of the parasitic class tended to expand as a result of natural growth of noble families, sub infeudation and the multiplication of retainers of whom all has to be supported from the surplus labour of the serf population Hilton (1976:38). Sweezy also argued that once we look outside the feudal system we will find ample reason for the growing extravagance of the feudal ruling class; he said that the rapid expansion of trade from the eleventh century onward brought an ever increasing quantity and variety of goods within their reach.
Sweezy examined Dobb’s theory as that according to Hilton (1976; 36) that the essential cause of the breakdown of feudalism was over-exploitation of the labour force as the serfs deserted the lord’s estates in large numbers. Sweezy criticized this point by propounding that the serfs could not desert the manors no matter how exacting their masters might become unless if they had somewhere to go he argued that the federal society generated a surplus of vagrant population which constituted the dregs of society which is made up of those whom there were no room for manors and this is hardly inconsiderable that the serfs would deliberately abandon their holdings to descend to the bottom of the social ladder.
Sweezy argued that he found Dobb theory of decline of feudalism unsatisfactory on several counts. He goes on to say that Dobb does not say the root cause of the decline of feudalism which was the growth of trade, and that Dobb deals with the area less importantly Hilton (1976: 41). Furthermore Sweezy according to Hilton (1976:40) pays little attain to the fights of the serfs in the 12th and 13th century and he agrees with Dobb that in did the growth of the towns acted as a magnet to the oppressed rural population but he disagrees with Dobb of not mentioning that the burgers themselves in need of additional labour force and more soldiers enhanced their military strength in an effort to facilitate the escape of the serfs from the jurisdiction of their masters. Sweezy criticized Dobb that the oppression as an important factor in the predisposing the serfs to flight could not alone led to an emigration of large proportions.
Sweezy also raises the point that serfdom ended in England in the 1500s, but feudalism didn't end until 1644-1645 - so how can Dobb explain that and how does he characterize that period in between. They disagree about how to characterize the period of the 1500's and 1600's in Western Europe, during the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Sweezy calls that period pre-capitalist commodity production. Dobb defines it as feudalism in an advanced state of dissolution.
The transition from Feudalism to capitalism must the analyzed within the different views the different scholars have propounded. It is essential to take into consideration the arguments put forward by Sweezy on Dobb theory on the transition form feudalism to capitalism as this gives a clear understanding on the dynamics of the transition from feudalism to capitalism.
Bibliography
Dobb M 1963. Studies in the development of capitalism. Rout ledge paperback .London: United Kingdom
Hilton, R. (1976). The Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism. NLB. London
The debate is centered on the Sweezy criticism of Dobb’s account of how the feudalism economic system evolution to capitalism. Sweezy’s criticism began with the sidelining of Dobb’s definition of the feudalism process according to Sweeyz in Hilton (2006; 33) criticized Dobb definition of feudalism as being virtually identical with serfdom instead of indentifying a system of production he further criticized that serfdom can exist in systems which are not clearly feudal. Sweezy says this definition is inadequate and that it may apply to Western European feudalism but shouldn't be generalized beyond that, as he accuses Dobb of doing.
In debate on the transition Sweezy according to Hilton (1976; 36) elaborates that Dobb on the theory of the decline of feudalism concentrated on the impact of commerce which was acting as an external force and developing outside the system that it finally overwhelms the transition from the old order to the new that finds the dominant causal sequences within the sphere of exchange between the manorial economy and the outside world. Dobb found out that the growth of money economy led to the intensification of serfdom as there is evidence that it was the cause of the feudal decline he also reasons that if the only factor at work in the Western Europe was the rise of trade eventually its intensification resulted in the disintegration of feudalism.
Paul Sweezy act in response to this by saying that Dobb most show that the feudal ruling class’s growing need for revenue and the flight of serfs from the land can both be explained in terms of forces operating inside the feudal system Hilton (1976:37). Sweezy continue to say that with regards to lords need for revenue put forward by Dobb is not clearly propounded. He says the size of the parasitic class tended to expand as a result of natural growth of noble families, sub infeudation and the multiplication of retainers of whom all has to be supported from the surplus labour of the serf population Hilton (1976:38). Sweezy also argued that once we look outside the feudal system we will find ample reason for the growing extravagance of the feudal ruling class; he said that the rapid expansion of trade from the eleventh century onward brought an ever increasing quantity and variety of goods within their reach.
Sweezy examined Dobb’s theory as that according to Hilton (1976; 36) that the essential cause of the breakdown of feudalism was over-exploitation of the labour force as the serfs deserted the lord’s estates in large numbers. Sweezy criticized this point by propounding that the serfs could not desert the manors no matter how exacting their masters might become unless if they had somewhere to go he argued that the federal society generated a surplus of vagrant population which constituted the dregs of society which is made up of those whom there were no room for manors and this is hardly inconsiderable that the serfs would deliberately abandon their holdings to descend to the bottom of the social ladder.
Sweezy argued that he found Dobb theory of decline of feudalism unsatisfactory on several counts. He goes on to say that Dobb does not say the root cause of the decline of feudalism which was the growth of trade, and that Dobb deals with the area less importantly Hilton (1976: 41). Furthermore Sweezy according to Hilton (1976:40) pays little attain to the fights of the serfs in the 12th and 13th century and he agrees with Dobb that in did the growth of the towns acted as a magnet to the oppressed rural population but he disagrees with Dobb of not mentioning that the burgers themselves in need of additional labour force and more soldiers enhanced their military strength in an effort to facilitate the escape of the serfs from the jurisdiction of their masters. Sweezy criticized Dobb that the oppression as an important factor in the predisposing the serfs to flight could not alone led to an emigration of large proportions.
Sweezy also raises the point that serfdom ended in England in the 1500s, but feudalism didn't end until 1644-1645 - so how can Dobb explain that and how does he characterize that period in between. They disagree about how to characterize the period of the 1500's and 1600's in Western Europe, during the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Sweezy calls that period pre-capitalist commodity production. Dobb defines it as feudalism in an advanced state of dissolution.
The transition from Feudalism to capitalism must the analyzed within the different views the different scholars have propounded. It is essential to take into consideration the arguments put forward by Sweezy on Dobb theory on the transition form feudalism to capitalism as this gives a clear understanding on the dynamics of the transition from feudalism to capitalism.
Bibliography
Dobb M 1963. Studies in the development of capitalism. Rout ledge paperback .London: United Kingdom
Hilton, R. (1976). The Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism. NLB. London
Analyze Hobson‘s theory of imperialism and its usefulness in understanding the expansion of capitalism
The development of the imperialism system was propelled by the economic forces of overproduction and under-consumption. Hobson argues that the economic forces of over-production and subsequent under-consumption spark a complex chain of events that result in imperialism. In order to understand this progression we must delve further into Hobson's theory. In the 18 century major European powers began to establish the imperialism system due to the economic forces that propelled them to colonize global territorial areas in the proposition of bring civilization and Christianity to the so called uncivilized peoples. This essay is going to critically analyze Hobson’s theory of imperialism and its usefulness to the understanding the expansion of capitalism.
According to Hobson's theory, imperialism arises from the generation of under-consumption and over-saving in the capitalistic economy of the home country. Powerful financiers seek investment opportunities with a high rate of return for their excess savings, driving them to invest in the "uncivilized" lands of Africa. These investors, looking to minimize risks on their investments while maintaining their high rate of return, use their influence to force their government to provide military protection and eventually to annex outright the areas in which they have invested. Thus, imperialism exists to further the interests of the investor class at the expense of the rest of the nation. Hunt (2002; 351) Hobson saw imperialism as a social parasite by which moneyed interest when the states uprising the reins of government ,makes imperial expansion in order to foster economic suckers into foreign bodies so as to drain them of their wealth in order to support domestic luxury. These investors, looking to minimize risks on their investments while maintaining their high rate of return, use their influence to force their government to provide military protection and eventually to annex outright the areas in which they have invested. Thus, imperialism exists to further the interests of the investor class at the expense of the rest of the nation.
Hunt (2002:351) elaborates that imperialism was the outcome of many separate social forces such as nationalism, patriotism, religious fervor and militarism as well as capitalist ceaseless quest for more profit. The major powers advanced there rule to weaker nations in the proposition to increase their capital accumulations and investment to more profits. Imperialism generally described as the benevolent quest to civilize and bring Christianity to the low races was according to Hobson was a propagandist way lie a fraudent conceit behind the real motives of imperialism. Hunt (2002;353) propounds that the rapid accelerating concentration of the of industrial power and wealth which occurred in the last third of the 19th century the income colossal wealth holdings was so large that even the most extravagant and luxurious of consumption expenditure would leave them with enormous amounts of income. This led to foreign investment being the only answer but such investment was only possible only if the non capitalist countries could be “civilized”, Christianized and uplift thus if the traditional institutions could be forcefully destroyed and people coercively be brought under the domain of the “visible hand “of capitalism so imperialism was the only answer to the capitalist ambitions of capital expansion. Hobson therefore concludes that although these non-economic forces are not the real justifications for imperialism, they are powerful and necessary tools for the investors.
Hobson examining the empirical data showing the profits derived from ordinary export and import trade concluded that the income derived as interest upon foreign investment enormously exceeded that derived as profits from the ordinary trade. Hobson showed why imperialism was required for capitalist to make profits why could not make their profits by investing at home or with capitalist countries. Why was it necessary to subjugate an non capitalist culture to destroy the its traditional institutions and make it economically dependent of the market and politically dependent on imperialist conqueror Hunt (2002:354). The primary force promoting and directing imperialism in Hobson view was the ceaseless drive to accumulate capital and invest the profits derived from the capital into new other and equally profitable capital. Imperialism is the is very useful in understanding the expansion of capitalism as its efficacy led to the most dominate countries globally in investing in foreign land in the proposition of increasing their capital accumulation prospects.
The foreign government of the great powers involvement often begins as military intervention to protect industrial sites in Africa or Asia. But eventually investors realized that the only true way to protect their investments from the native inhabitants and from other capitalist nations were to get rid of all difficulties. The result of this is imperialism, caused by the economic forces of over-production and under-consumption at home. Hunt (2002: 351) gives America example when President McKinney described the brutal, blood, military crushing of the Filipino independence movement by American troops as a benevolent attempt to educate the Filipinos and uplift and Christianize them of which this was just a propagandist way to shelve away the capitalist motives they had in the Filipinas.
In conclusion Hobson argues that imperialism is a product of capitalism. Capitalism and its profit motive generate over-production, which leads to concentration in industries. These new wealthy interests, though, cannot possibly spend enough to make up for the general under-consumption of the market and excess savings result. Unwilling to let these savings fail to realize maximum profit, investors place their money into risky, yet lucrative assets in the "uncivilized" lands of Africa and Asia. Then the investors, wishing to minimize their risks, induce their governments into giving their investments military protection and eventually to annex those areas in which they are invested.
Bibliography
Hunt E. K. (2002) History of economic thought: a critical perspective M. E Sharpe Inc USA
According to Hobson's theory, imperialism arises from the generation of under-consumption and over-saving in the capitalistic economy of the home country. Powerful financiers seek investment opportunities with a high rate of return for their excess savings, driving them to invest in the "uncivilized" lands of Africa. These investors, looking to minimize risks on their investments while maintaining their high rate of return, use their influence to force their government to provide military protection and eventually to annex outright the areas in which they have invested. Thus, imperialism exists to further the interests of the investor class at the expense of the rest of the nation. Hunt (2002; 351) Hobson saw imperialism as a social parasite by which moneyed interest when the states uprising the reins of government ,makes imperial expansion in order to foster economic suckers into foreign bodies so as to drain them of their wealth in order to support domestic luxury. These investors, looking to minimize risks on their investments while maintaining their high rate of return, use their influence to force their government to provide military protection and eventually to annex outright the areas in which they have invested. Thus, imperialism exists to further the interests of the investor class at the expense of the rest of the nation.
Hunt (2002:351) elaborates that imperialism was the outcome of many separate social forces such as nationalism, patriotism, religious fervor and militarism as well as capitalist ceaseless quest for more profit. The major powers advanced there rule to weaker nations in the proposition to increase their capital accumulations and investment to more profits. Imperialism generally described as the benevolent quest to civilize and bring Christianity to the low races was according to Hobson was a propagandist way lie a fraudent conceit behind the real motives of imperialism. Hunt (2002;353) propounds that the rapid accelerating concentration of the of industrial power and wealth which occurred in the last third of the 19th century the income colossal wealth holdings was so large that even the most extravagant and luxurious of consumption expenditure would leave them with enormous amounts of income. This led to foreign investment being the only answer but such investment was only possible only if the non capitalist countries could be “civilized”, Christianized and uplift thus if the traditional institutions could be forcefully destroyed and people coercively be brought under the domain of the “visible hand “of capitalism so imperialism was the only answer to the capitalist ambitions of capital expansion. Hobson therefore concludes that although these non-economic forces are not the real justifications for imperialism, they are powerful and necessary tools for the investors.
Hobson examining the empirical data showing the profits derived from ordinary export and import trade concluded that the income derived as interest upon foreign investment enormously exceeded that derived as profits from the ordinary trade. Hobson showed why imperialism was required for capitalist to make profits why could not make their profits by investing at home or with capitalist countries. Why was it necessary to subjugate an non capitalist culture to destroy the its traditional institutions and make it economically dependent of the market and politically dependent on imperialist conqueror Hunt (2002:354). The primary force promoting and directing imperialism in Hobson view was the ceaseless drive to accumulate capital and invest the profits derived from the capital into new other and equally profitable capital. Imperialism is the is very useful in understanding the expansion of capitalism as its efficacy led to the most dominate countries globally in investing in foreign land in the proposition of increasing their capital accumulation prospects.
The foreign government of the great powers involvement often begins as military intervention to protect industrial sites in Africa or Asia. But eventually investors realized that the only true way to protect their investments from the native inhabitants and from other capitalist nations were to get rid of all difficulties. The result of this is imperialism, caused by the economic forces of over-production and under-consumption at home. Hunt (2002: 351) gives America example when President McKinney described the brutal, blood, military crushing of the Filipino independence movement by American troops as a benevolent attempt to educate the Filipinos and uplift and Christianize them of which this was just a propagandist way to shelve away the capitalist motives they had in the Filipinas.
In conclusion Hobson argues that imperialism is a product of capitalism. Capitalism and its profit motive generate over-production, which leads to concentration in industries. These new wealthy interests, though, cannot possibly spend enough to make up for the general under-consumption of the market and excess savings result. Unwilling to let these savings fail to realize maximum profit, investors place their money into risky, yet lucrative assets in the "uncivilized" lands of Africa and Asia. Then the investors, wishing to minimize their risks, induce their governments into giving their investments military protection and eventually to annex those areas in which they are invested.
Bibliography
Hunt E. K. (2002) History of economic thought: a critical perspective M. E Sharpe Inc USA
Discuss the process of class formation in England during the time of the growth of capitalism.
The growth of capitalism in England led to the formation of classes within the England economic and social environment. The flourishing industrialization period in the 18th century intensified the stratification of the England society within the growth of capitalism. Like any other European county during the growth of capitalism within the industrialization period stratification with the societies emerged those who own the means of production and those how sold their labour for economic benefits. The growth of Capitalism led to the transitory phenomena that led to the creation of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat classes. This easy will discuss and elucidate the process of the class formation in England during the growth of capitalism.
The disintegration of the feudal mode of production that was largely affected by the primitive accumulation process by the merchant capitalists led to the formation of a new mode of production the capitalist system Dobb (1963; 181) elaborates that capitalism did not grow to any stature until the disintegration of the feudalism had reached an advanced stage the petty primitive accumulation which was the legacy of the feudal society was itself partially subordinated to capital and state policy in England was being shaped into by new bourgeois influences. Capitalism according Dobb (2007:3) it is a system of unfettered individual enterprise: a system where economic and social relations are ruled by contract, where men are free agents in seeking their livelihood and legal compulsions and restrictions are absent. Dobb (148:1963) quotes Karl Marx elaborating that England stratification of classes did not appear pure in form in which the capitalist society had two forms of classes the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
Most of the peasants that migrated from the farms or the rural areas during the disintegration of the feudal economic system into the urban areas become the proletariat class that offered their labour to the bourgeoisie according to Dobb (86; 1963) the productivity of labour and the unit of production alike were too small and source capital accumulation had to be looked for not within the petty mode of production with the urban handcrafts enshrined these development disrupted the primitive simplicity of the urban communities hence the development of the rise of a privileged class of burghers began to engage exclusively in wholesale trade.
The inheritance of the feudal authority among the class of the capitalist society that of means of production control and ownership was in the England capitalistic economy as the source of capitalist revenue and accumulation was based on the exploitation of the proletarian although contractual relationship existed and free exchange. According to Dobb (1963;87) the riches and accumulation of the urban bourgeoisie was not centered on the serfs to toil for them and had not invested in the employment of an industrial proletariat. Most of the burgher wealth in the capitalism growth in England was produced not acquired different form the primitive accumulation that involved the merchant capitalists. Dobb (1963:88) elaborates that the vast accumulations of the merchant class can be explained in twofold one of exploiting some political advantage or scarcely-veiled plunder secondly class of merchants was quick to acquire powers of monopoly which fenced its ranks from competition and served to turn the terms of exchange to its advantage in its dealings with the producer and the consumer. Accumulation of wealth during the growth of the capitalist economy was the major base to the formation the bourgeoisie class Dobb (1963:90) elaborates that the methods of controlling the means of attaining wealth by the burgesses was very fundamental as they levied market dues and tolls which provided a very important source of revenue to the town.
In England towns in the 14th century the bourgeoisie class was now in control of the means of production Dobb (1963; 100) the political plutocracy at that period of time also fuelled the expansion of the bourgeoisie class which involved an actual usurpation of economic privileges and political control by the new burgher plutocracy the urban democracy that was in England was abolished and trading privileges had been more or less open to the general citizens. The growth of capitalism which led to the emergence industrial era that was mainly focused of development of new technologies in farming, textiles and manufacturing sector in England all these inventions where in the motive to increase profit and also in the motive to create wealth.
Creation of wealth in England also led to the formation of classes the bourgeoisie as the class that owned the means of production and where politically strong in controlling trade and revenue accumulation of other classes Dobb (1963; 100) gives the example of how the Gild Merchant in England which was mainly composed of the majority of burgesses including craftsmen, tended to become a close organization and to exclude craftsmen from the privileges of wholesale and trade. This monopoly over the means of income and capital accumulation led the bourgeoisie to accumulate more wealth and to enhance more control over the means of production. Dobb (1963:102) political power over towns was in the hands of the burgher oligarchy which resulted in the attainment of monopoly over the wholesale of trade.
While the market was experiencing a boom in England the division between classes increased Dobb (1963;109) elaborates that internally the market was expanding not only through the growth of towns and the multiplication of urban markets but also increased penetration of money economy into the manor with the growth of hired labour and the leasing of demesne for money. The bourgeoisie classes was growing in the midst of growth the capitalism system due to these factors according to Dobb (1963;178) capitalism demands not only the transfer of titles of wealth into the hands of the bourgeois class but the concentration of the ownership of wealth into much fewer hands.
In England during the growth of Capitalism the increase of ownership of property and capital accumulation by the bourgeoisie class was intensive as the capitalism economic system paves way for privatization and free trade, the bourgeoisie class took the opportunity of such an economic system. Dobb (1963; 182) elaborates that the most important to history of accumulation was the rapid increase in the supply of the precious metals in the 16th century and the price inflation. During the growth of capitalism price inflation was the main factor which resulted in the massive expansion of the bourgeoisie wealth Dobb (1963; 182) suggests that price inflation was no doubt the powerful factor in facilitating the transfer of land into bourgeois hands the price at which land could be purchased tended to lag behind the rise in other values and the existing owners of land were inclined to acquire money as an object of hoarding in terms of traditional land values.
The growing of financial institutions during the growth of capitalism within England resulted also in the growth of the bourgeoisie class according to Dobb (1963; 189) banking institutions and the extension of the of the Crown borrowing and state debt were the most powerful influences in promoting bourgeois accumulation as public debt is one of the powerful levels of primitive accumulation. The maturing industrial capitalism gave birth to the proletariat class that depended on the producer as they offered the labour in return of economic incentives Dobb (1963;222) quotes Marx that for capitalism as a production system to mature two different kinds of commodity processors must come face to face and into contact on the other hand the owners of money ,means of production, means of subsistence ,who are eager to increase the sum of values they posses by buying other people’s labour power on the other hand, free labourers , the sellers of their own labour power. Stilwell (2006:50) also elaborates capitalism is a system of ‘alienated labour’. This characteristic is useful in understanding the appropriate developmental path as it demonstrated the importance of labour in a capitalistic society, how labour can be associated with the level of output and relations to profits, from the feudalism economic system the developmental path created classes, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
Primitive accumulation resulted in the deprivation of the peasants on the means of production the land and any other revenue generating means as capitalism was growing need for labour –power was supplied by the alarming number of the proletariat class in England according to Dobb (1963;2230) the increase in the population in England in the 19th century resulted in the growth of the proletariat as they were the majority whilst the minority were the bourgeoisie that owned the means of production. The growing industrial capitalist environment in England in the 18th century led to landholding from small holders to larger one according to Dobb (1963; 227) in the 18th century in England dispossession quicken small farms being absorbed by bigger ones and the forced evictions of many smaller holders burdened by debt in the late 19th century and early 19th century were cut off from their traditional by employment in the cottage industry.
The ability of the of the displaced farmers and the peasants from the rural areas to obtain capital and the means of production resulted in them becoming the wage earns according to Dobb (1963:230) the inability to obtain working capital and progressively enchained by debt and the multiplication of apprentices that was everywhere encouraged by the growing dominance of capital over production served merely to increase the number of those who were destined for life to be wage earners even if they had cherished other ambitions. The growth of the industrial capitalism resulted in the England authorities to impose laws that would make the proletariat offer their labour to the bourgeoisie factories and farms Dobb (1963; 232) elaborates that the imposition of the Tudor policy was to force the proletarian class to submit their labour it rendered being unemployed as an offence with characteristic brutality.
The ‘process of proletarianization’ indicates the creation of a class of people who do not control the means of production, and who survive by selling their labour. According to , Mikkelsen (1996:6) proletarianization refers to (a) the separation of workers from control of the means of production (expropriation), and (b) increasing dependence of workers on the sale of their labour power (wagework). Proletarianization points indirectly to an array of changes beginning in the agrarian system of production and agrarian ownership of property, capital flow, and new social and demographic structures, along with a characteristic concentration of capital, which includes industrial production as well as its spatial distribution. The historical version of this process addresses a proletarianization that crystallized between the 16th century and the middle of the 19th century in England rural areas, and that, during the19th to 20th centuries, would be concentrated in the cities.
The emergence of the proletariat was further fuelled by the by the demographic changes in England as population increased in the rural areas which resulted in net migration of the rural folks into towns in search of employment. Natural rate of increase and social mobility according Mikkelsen (1996:6) resulted in the outward movement of thousands of people most of them proletarian from rural areas to urban centres according to Tilly, natural increase have played the major role in the growth of the European proletariat since 1500, and especially since 1800 the growing number of the proletariat was as a result of the growth of the capitalism the proto-industrialization according to Mikkelsen (1996:6) in the 18th century, the growth of industrial output was primarily caused by the expansion of small scale, labour-intensive manufacture in a capitalist environment, a mode of production named proto-industrialization the development of proto- industrialization in England resulted in the created of a large labour pool which forced all the rural migrants to become wageworkers.
According to Mikkelsen (1996:6) elaborates that agrarian improvement often went hand in hand with concentration and consolidation of capitalist farms, and the accumulation of cultivated land in the hands of landlords. In some regions a growing number of smallholder were charged with increasing seigniorial dues and taxes, whereas in others they were given the choice of becoming rural labourers or abandoning agriculture. The industrialization process resulted in the creation of classes as those who were not wealthy were forced into the proletarian class in the 19th century rural industrial workers, agricultural wageworkers, tenants
and sharecroppers entered the urban world that was becoming more and more proletarianized in England. Within the 19th century or prior the nineteenth century according to Tilly (1980:8) a majority of Britain's rural population consisted of landless labourers, and that rural proletarianization continued to the mid-nineteenth this prompted the landless labourers to became wage labourers in the growing industrialized sector with England.
The growth of capitalism led to the stratification of the society in England as classes emerged in the England economy. The industrialization period in the growth of capitalism in the 18th century and 19th century marked the transition from agricultural based economies to technological based economies. Capitalist ambitions to control the means of production led to the formation of a class that depended on wages. In conclusion the growth of capitalism led to the formation of classes in England thus the bourgeois class and the proletariat class.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dobb M 2007. Studies in the development of capitalism. Routledge paperback .London: United Kingdom
Stilwell F 2006, Political Economy: The Contest of Economic Ideas, Second Edition Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Mikkelsen F 1996 WORKING-CLASS FORMATION IN EUROPE:
IN SEARCH OF A S YNTHESIS http://www.iisg.nl/publications/mikkelse.pdf accesed on 28/04/2010 International Institute of Social History
Amsterdam
Tilly C STATES, TAXES AND PROLETARIANS 1980 http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/50987/1/213.pdf
The disintegration of the feudal mode of production that was largely affected by the primitive accumulation process by the merchant capitalists led to the formation of a new mode of production the capitalist system Dobb (1963; 181) elaborates that capitalism did not grow to any stature until the disintegration of the feudalism had reached an advanced stage the petty primitive accumulation which was the legacy of the feudal society was itself partially subordinated to capital and state policy in England was being shaped into by new bourgeois influences. Capitalism according Dobb (2007:3) it is a system of unfettered individual enterprise: a system where economic and social relations are ruled by contract, where men are free agents in seeking their livelihood and legal compulsions and restrictions are absent. Dobb (148:1963) quotes Karl Marx elaborating that England stratification of classes did not appear pure in form in which the capitalist society had two forms of classes the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
Most of the peasants that migrated from the farms or the rural areas during the disintegration of the feudal economic system into the urban areas become the proletariat class that offered their labour to the bourgeoisie according to Dobb (86; 1963) the productivity of labour and the unit of production alike were too small and source capital accumulation had to be looked for not within the petty mode of production with the urban handcrafts enshrined these development disrupted the primitive simplicity of the urban communities hence the development of the rise of a privileged class of burghers began to engage exclusively in wholesale trade.
The inheritance of the feudal authority among the class of the capitalist society that of means of production control and ownership was in the England capitalistic economy as the source of capitalist revenue and accumulation was based on the exploitation of the proletarian although contractual relationship existed and free exchange. According to Dobb (1963;87) the riches and accumulation of the urban bourgeoisie was not centered on the serfs to toil for them and had not invested in the employment of an industrial proletariat. Most of the burgher wealth in the capitalism growth in England was produced not acquired different form the primitive accumulation that involved the merchant capitalists. Dobb (1963:88) elaborates that the vast accumulations of the merchant class can be explained in twofold one of exploiting some political advantage or scarcely-veiled plunder secondly class of merchants was quick to acquire powers of monopoly which fenced its ranks from competition and served to turn the terms of exchange to its advantage in its dealings with the producer and the consumer. Accumulation of wealth during the growth of the capitalist economy was the major base to the formation the bourgeoisie class Dobb (1963:90) elaborates that the methods of controlling the means of attaining wealth by the burgesses was very fundamental as they levied market dues and tolls which provided a very important source of revenue to the town.
In England towns in the 14th century the bourgeoisie class was now in control of the means of production Dobb (1963; 100) the political plutocracy at that period of time also fuelled the expansion of the bourgeoisie class which involved an actual usurpation of economic privileges and political control by the new burgher plutocracy the urban democracy that was in England was abolished and trading privileges had been more or less open to the general citizens. The growth of capitalism which led to the emergence industrial era that was mainly focused of development of new technologies in farming, textiles and manufacturing sector in England all these inventions where in the motive to increase profit and also in the motive to create wealth.
Creation of wealth in England also led to the formation of classes the bourgeoisie as the class that owned the means of production and where politically strong in controlling trade and revenue accumulation of other classes Dobb (1963; 100) gives the example of how the Gild Merchant in England which was mainly composed of the majority of burgesses including craftsmen, tended to become a close organization and to exclude craftsmen from the privileges of wholesale and trade. This monopoly over the means of income and capital accumulation led the bourgeoisie to accumulate more wealth and to enhance more control over the means of production. Dobb (1963:102) political power over towns was in the hands of the burgher oligarchy which resulted in the attainment of monopoly over the wholesale of trade.
While the market was experiencing a boom in England the division between classes increased Dobb (1963;109) elaborates that internally the market was expanding not only through the growth of towns and the multiplication of urban markets but also increased penetration of money economy into the manor with the growth of hired labour and the leasing of demesne for money. The bourgeoisie classes was growing in the midst of growth the capitalism system due to these factors according to Dobb (1963;178) capitalism demands not only the transfer of titles of wealth into the hands of the bourgeois class but the concentration of the ownership of wealth into much fewer hands.
In England during the growth of Capitalism the increase of ownership of property and capital accumulation by the bourgeoisie class was intensive as the capitalism economic system paves way for privatization and free trade, the bourgeoisie class took the opportunity of such an economic system. Dobb (1963; 182) elaborates that the most important to history of accumulation was the rapid increase in the supply of the precious metals in the 16th century and the price inflation. During the growth of capitalism price inflation was the main factor which resulted in the massive expansion of the bourgeoisie wealth Dobb (1963; 182) suggests that price inflation was no doubt the powerful factor in facilitating the transfer of land into bourgeois hands the price at which land could be purchased tended to lag behind the rise in other values and the existing owners of land were inclined to acquire money as an object of hoarding in terms of traditional land values.
The growing of financial institutions during the growth of capitalism within England resulted also in the growth of the bourgeoisie class according to Dobb (1963; 189) banking institutions and the extension of the of the Crown borrowing and state debt were the most powerful influences in promoting bourgeois accumulation as public debt is one of the powerful levels of primitive accumulation. The maturing industrial capitalism gave birth to the proletariat class that depended on the producer as they offered the labour in return of economic incentives Dobb (1963;222) quotes Marx that for capitalism as a production system to mature two different kinds of commodity processors must come face to face and into contact on the other hand the owners of money ,means of production, means of subsistence ,who are eager to increase the sum of values they posses by buying other people’s labour power on the other hand, free labourers , the sellers of their own labour power. Stilwell (2006:50) also elaborates capitalism is a system of ‘alienated labour’. This characteristic is useful in understanding the appropriate developmental path as it demonstrated the importance of labour in a capitalistic society, how labour can be associated with the level of output and relations to profits, from the feudalism economic system the developmental path created classes, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
Primitive accumulation resulted in the deprivation of the peasants on the means of production the land and any other revenue generating means as capitalism was growing need for labour –power was supplied by the alarming number of the proletariat class in England according to Dobb (1963;2230) the increase in the population in England in the 19th century resulted in the growth of the proletariat as they were the majority whilst the minority were the bourgeoisie that owned the means of production. The growing industrial capitalist environment in England in the 18th century led to landholding from small holders to larger one according to Dobb (1963; 227) in the 18th century in England dispossession quicken small farms being absorbed by bigger ones and the forced evictions of many smaller holders burdened by debt in the late 19th century and early 19th century were cut off from their traditional by employment in the cottage industry.
The ability of the of the displaced farmers and the peasants from the rural areas to obtain capital and the means of production resulted in them becoming the wage earns according to Dobb (1963:230) the inability to obtain working capital and progressively enchained by debt and the multiplication of apprentices that was everywhere encouraged by the growing dominance of capital over production served merely to increase the number of those who were destined for life to be wage earners even if they had cherished other ambitions. The growth of the industrial capitalism resulted in the England authorities to impose laws that would make the proletariat offer their labour to the bourgeoisie factories and farms Dobb (1963; 232) elaborates that the imposition of the Tudor policy was to force the proletarian class to submit their labour it rendered being unemployed as an offence with characteristic brutality.
The ‘process of proletarianization’ indicates the creation of a class of people who do not control the means of production, and who survive by selling their labour. According to , Mikkelsen (1996:6) proletarianization refers to (a) the separation of workers from control of the means of production (expropriation), and (b) increasing dependence of workers on the sale of their labour power (wagework). Proletarianization points indirectly to an array of changes beginning in the agrarian system of production and agrarian ownership of property, capital flow, and new social and demographic structures, along with a characteristic concentration of capital, which includes industrial production as well as its spatial distribution. The historical version of this process addresses a proletarianization that crystallized between the 16th century and the middle of the 19th century in England rural areas, and that, during the19th to 20th centuries, would be concentrated in the cities.
The emergence of the proletariat was further fuelled by the by the demographic changes in England as population increased in the rural areas which resulted in net migration of the rural folks into towns in search of employment. Natural rate of increase and social mobility according Mikkelsen (1996:6) resulted in the outward movement of thousands of people most of them proletarian from rural areas to urban centres according to Tilly, natural increase have played the major role in the growth of the European proletariat since 1500, and especially since 1800 the growing number of the proletariat was as a result of the growth of the capitalism the proto-industrialization according to Mikkelsen (1996:6) in the 18th century, the growth of industrial output was primarily caused by the expansion of small scale, labour-intensive manufacture in a capitalist environment, a mode of production named proto-industrialization the development of proto- industrialization in England resulted in the created of a large labour pool which forced all the rural migrants to become wageworkers.
According to Mikkelsen (1996:6) elaborates that agrarian improvement often went hand in hand with concentration and consolidation of capitalist farms, and the accumulation of cultivated land in the hands of landlords. In some regions a growing number of smallholder were charged with increasing seigniorial dues and taxes, whereas in others they were given the choice of becoming rural labourers or abandoning agriculture. The industrialization process resulted in the creation of classes as those who were not wealthy were forced into the proletarian class in the 19th century rural industrial workers, agricultural wageworkers, tenants
and sharecroppers entered the urban world that was becoming more and more proletarianized in England. Within the 19th century or prior the nineteenth century according to Tilly (1980:8) a majority of Britain's rural population consisted of landless labourers, and that rural proletarianization continued to the mid-nineteenth this prompted the landless labourers to became wage labourers in the growing industrialized sector with England.
The growth of capitalism led to the stratification of the society in England as classes emerged in the England economy. The industrialization period in the growth of capitalism in the 18th century and 19th century marked the transition from agricultural based economies to technological based economies. Capitalist ambitions to control the means of production led to the formation of a class that depended on wages. In conclusion the growth of capitalism led to the formation of classes in England thus the bourgeois class and the proletariat class.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dobb M 2007. Studies in the development of capitalism. Routledge paperback .London: United Kingdom
Stilwell F 2006, Political Economy: The Contest of Economic Ideas, Second Edition Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Mikkelsen F 1996 WORKING-CLASS FORMATION IN EUROPE:
IN SEARCH OF A S YNTHESIS http://www.iisg.nl/publications/mikkelse.pdf accesed on 28/04/2010 International Institute of Social History
Amsterdam
Tilly C STATES, TAXES AND PROLETARIANS 1980 http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/50987/1/213.pdf
Friday, March 19, 2010
Notes for Politics 2010 POLS 201
LIBERALISM
Many variants of Liberalism / Pluralism
Principles underlying all liberal thinking:
o Idealist underpinnings of optimism, moralism and universalism
o pluralist assumptions
o cooperation and interdependence as opposed to conflict
o strategies such as institution-building, international regimes and collective security
Main Themes:
o Human beings are perfectable
o Democracy is necessary for this to develop
o Ideas matter
o Belief in progress
War ≠ natural condition of world politics
o State is NB but question idea that the state is the main actor
o MNCs, TNAs (e.g. terrorist groups), IOs = central actors in some issue-areas of world politics
o State ≠ unitary actor (rather a set of bureaucracies each with its own interests)
o No such thing as a national interest
o Liberals stress the possibilities for cooperation
o Key issue = devising international settings in which cooperation can be achieved
o World politics = complex system of bargaining between many different types of actors
o Order emerges from the interactions of many layers of governing arrangements
o Interdependence between states = NB feature of world politics
Liberalism holds that state preferences, rather than state capabilities, are the primary determinant of state behaviour.
Unlike realism where the state is seen as a unitary actor, liberalism allows for plurality in state actions.
Thus, preferences will vary from state to state, depending on factors such as culture, economic system or government type.
Liberalism also holds that interaction between states is not limited to the political (high politics), but also economic (low politics) whether through commercial firms, organizations or individuals.
Thus, instead of an anarchic international system, there are plenty of opportunities for cooperation and broader notions of power, such as cultural capital (for example, the influence of American films leading to the popularity of American culture and creating a market for American exports worldwide).
Another assumption is that absolute gains can be made through co-operation and interdependence - thus peace can be achieved.
Many different strands of liberalism have emerged; some include commercial liberalism, liberal institutionalism, idealism, and regime theory.
Two forms of liberalism predominate, liberal institutionalism and idealism:
Liberal Institutionalism suggests that with the right factors, the international system provides opportunities for cooperation and interaction.
Examples include the successful integration of Europe through the European Union or regional blocs and economic agreements such as ASEAN or NAFTA and perhaps even SADC.
Ramifications of this view are that if states cannot cooperate, they ought to be curbed, whether through economic sanctions or military action.
For example, before the invasion of Iraq by the United States and United Kingdom in 2003, the governments' claims that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction could be seen as claims that Iraq is a bad state that needs to be curbed rather than an outright danger to American or European security. Thus, the invasion could be seen as curbing a bad state under liberal internationalism.
A variant is Neo-liberal institutionalism which shifts back to a state-centric approach, but allows for pluralism through identifying and recognizing different actors, processes and structures.
Idealism holds a view to promote a more peaceful world order through international organizations or IGOs; for example, through the United Nations (UN).
While liberalism increases the scope of study, it makes no attempt to question the status quo. It holds international institutions as benevolent forces - when in fact, they may act in pursuit of rational self-interest which may be at odds with those for peace.
Realists argue that liberalist arguments can be grounded in realism - and raw economic and military power still trumps cultural and other broader notions of power.
REALISM
Realist theories share the following key assumptions:
• The international system is anarchic. There is no authority above states capable of regulating their interactions; states must arrive at relations with other states on their own, rather than it being dictated to them by some higher controlling entity (that is, no true authoritative world government exists).
• Sovereign states are the principal actors in the international system. International institutions, non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations and other sub-state or trans-state actors are viewed as having little independent influence.
• States are rational unitary actors each moving towards their own national interest. There is a general distrust of long-term cooperation or alliance.
• The overriding 'national interest' of each state is its national security and survival.
• In pursuit of national security, states strive to amass resources.
• Relations between states are determined by their comparative level of power derived primarily from their military and economic capabilities.
In summary, realists believe that mankind is not inherently benevolent but rather self-centred and competitive.
[This Hobbesian perspective contrasts with the approach of liberalism to international relations which views human nature as selfish and conflictual unless given appropriate conditions under which to cooperate.]
Realists believe that states are inherently aggressive (offensive realism) and/or obsessed with security (defensive realism); and that territorial expansion is only constrained by opposing power(s).
This aggressive build-up (especially in attempting to ensure a state’s security), however, leads to a security dilemma where increasing one's own security can bring along greater instability as the opponent(s) builds up its own arms. Thus, security is a zero-sum game where only relative gains can be made.
SUMMARY
Main Actors = States (legally sovereign actors)
o States unitary, rational actors
o Sovereignty means that there is no actor above the state that can compel it to act in specific ways
Other actors (e.g. NGOs, MNCs) have to work within the framework of inter-state relations.
o Human nature = centrally important
= fixed & selfish
o Realism represents a struggle for power between states (each trying to maximise their national interests)
o Order exists because of the balance of power (whereby states act so as to prevent any one state from dominating)
o International Relations bargaining and alliances
diplomacy = key mechanism for balancing various national interests
most NB tool re. foreign policy = military force
o Global Politics = anarchy self-help system (states must rely on their own military resources to achieve their ends)
o Often these ends can be met viz cooperation (alliances) but potential for conflict remains
o Neo-Realism structure of the international system NB in affecting the behaviour of all states
[e.g Bipolarity of Cold War World]
All schools of Realist Thought subscribe to what are referred to as the 3 Ss:
o Statism: Centrality of state and its monopoly to legitimately use force
o Survival: All states are concerned with survival, and hence security is the most important item on the agenda
o Self-Help: In the international system, the state’s structures are the only form of preventing and countering the use of force and each state has to have its own mechanism of doing so, hence the necessity of having defence systems and ensuring a balance of power
Model of the International System
Realism
Type of Model: Classical – descriptive and normative
Modern – deductive
Central Problems: Causes of War
Conditions of Peace
Conception of current
international system: Structural anarchy
Structure conceived in terms of material capabilities
Key Actors: Geographically based units (tribes, city-states, sovereign states, etc)
Central Motivations: National interest
Security
Power
Loyalties: To geographically based groups
Central Processes: Search for security and survival
Likelihood of system
transformation: Low (basic structural elements of system have revealed an ability to persist
despite many other kinds of changes)
Sources of theory,
insights & evidence: Politics
History
Economics (especially modern realists)
Many variants of Liberalism / Pluralism
Principles underlying all liberal thinking:
o Idealist underpinnings of optimism, moralism and universalism
o pluralist assumptions
o cooperation and interdependence as opposed to conflict
o strategies such as institution-building, international regimes and collective security
Main Themes:
o Human beings are perfectable
o Democracy is necessary for this to develop
o Ideas matter
o Belief in progress
War ≠ natural condition of world politics
o State is NB but question idea that the state is the main actor
o MNCs, TNAs (e.g. terrorist groups), IOs = central actors in some issue-areas of world politics
o State ≠ unitary actor (rather a set of bureaucracies each with its own interests)
o No such thing as a national interest
o Liberals stress the possibilities for cooperation
o Key issue = devising international settings in which cooperation can be achieved
o World politics = complex system of bargaining between many different types of actors
o Order emerges from the interactions of many layers of governing arrangements
o Interdependence between states = NB feature of world politics
Liberalism holds that state preferences, rather than state capabilities, are the primary determinant of state behaviour.
Unlike realism where the state is seen as a unitary actor, liberalism allows for plurality in state actions.
Thus, preferences will vary from state to state, depending on factors such as culture, economic system or government type.
Liberalism also holds that interaction between states is not limited to the political (high politics), but also economic (low politics) whether through commercial firms, organizations or individuals.
Thus, instead of an anarchic international system, there are plenty of opportunities for cooperation and broader notions of power, such as cultural capital (for example, the influence of American films leading to the popularity of American culture and creating a market for American exports worldwide).
Another assumption is that absolute gains can be made through co-operation and interdependence - thus peace can be achieved.
Many different strands of liberalism have emerged; some include commercial liberalism, liberal institutionalism, idealism, and regime theory.
Two forms of liberalism predominate, liberal institutionalism and idealism:
Liberal Institutionalism suggests that with the right factors, the international system provides opportunities for cooperation and interaction.
Examples include the successful integration of Europe through the European Union or regional blocs and economic agreements such as ASEAN or NAFTA and perhaps even SADC.
Ramifications of this view are that if states cannot cooperate, they ought to be curbed, whether through economic sanctions or military action.
For example, before the invasion of Iraq by the United States and United Kingdom in 2003, the governments' claims that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction could be seen as claims that Iraq is a bad state that needs to be curbed rather than an outright danger to American or European security. Thus, the invasion could be seen as curbing a bad state under liberal internationalism.
A variant is Neo-liberal institutionalism which shifts back to a state-centric approach, but allows for pluralism through identifying and recognizing different actors, processes and structures.
Idealism holds a view to promote a more peaceful world order through international organizations or IGOs; for example, through the United Nations (UN).
While liberalism increases the scope of study, it makes no attempt to question the status quo. It holds international institutions as benevolent forces - when in fact, they may act in pursuit of rational self-interest which may be at odds with those for peace.
Realists argue that liberalist arguments can be grounded in realism - and raw economic and military power still trumps cultural and other broader notions of power.
REALISM
Realist theories share the following key assumptions:
• The international system is anarchic. There is no authority above states capable of regulating their interactions; states must arrive at relations with other states on their own, rather than it being dictated to them by some higher controlling entity (that is, no true authoritative world government exists).
• Sovereign states are the principal actors in the international system. International institutions, non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations and other sub-state or trans-state actors are viewed as having little independent influence.
• States are rational unitary actors each moving towards their own national interest. There is a general distrust of long-term cooperation or alliance.
• The overriding 'national interest' of each state is its national security and survival.
• In pursuit of national security, states strive to amass resources.
• Relations between states are determined by their comparative level of power derived primarily from their military and economic capabilities.
In summary, realists believe that mankind is not inherently benevolent but rather self-centred and competitive.
[This Hobbesian perspective contrasts with the approach of liberalism to international relations which views human nature as selfish and conflictual unless given appropriate conditions under which to cooperate.]
Realists believe that states are inherently aggressive (offensive realism) and/or obsessed with security (defensive realism); and that territorial expansion is only constrained by opposing power(s).
This aggressive build-up (especially in attempting to ensure a state’s security), however, leads to a security dilemma where increasing one's own security can bring along greater instability as the opponent(s) builds up its own arms. Thus, security is a zero-sum game where only relative gains can be made.
SUMMARY
Main Actors = States (legally sovereign actors)
o States unitary, rational actors
o Sovereignty means that there is no actor above the state that can compel it to act in specific ways
Other actors (e.g. NGOs, MNCs) have to work within the framework of inter-state relations.
o Human nature = centrally important
= fixed & selfish
o Realism represents a struggle for power between states (each trying to maximise their national interests)
o Order exists because of the balance of power (whereby states act so as to prevent any one state from dominating)
o International Relations bargaining and alliances
diplomacy = key mechanism for balancing various national interests
most NB tool re. foreign policy = military force
o Global Politics = anarchy self-help system (states must rely on their own military resources to achieve their ends)
o Often these ends can be met viz cooperation (alliances) but potential for conflict remains
o Neo-Realism structure of the international system NB in affecting the behaviour of all states
[e.g Bipolarity of Cold War World]
All schools of Realist Thought subscribe to what are referred to as the 3 Ss:
o Statism: Centrality of state and its monopoly to legitimately use force
o Survival: All states are concerned with survival, and hence security is the most important item on the agenda
o Self-Help: In the international system, the state’s structures are the only form of preventing and countering the use of force and each state has to have its own mechanism of doing so, hence the necessity of having defence systems and ensuring a balance of power
Model of the International System
Realism
Type of Model: Classical – descriptive and normative
Modern – deductive
Central Problems: Causes of War
Conditions of Peace
Conception of current
international system: Structural anarchy
Structure conceived in terms of material capabilities
Key Actors: Geographically based units (tribes, city-states, sovereign states, etc)
Central Motivations: National interest
Security
Power
Loyalties: To geographically based groups
Central Processes: Search for security and survival
Likelihood of system
transformation: Low (basic structural elements of system have revealed an ability to persist
despite many other kinds of changes)
Sources of theory,
insights & evidence: Politics
History
Economics (especially modern realists)
Politics notes of the year 2009 POLS 201
POLS 102
Week 1 : Lecture 1
Introduction : What is Global Politics and International Relations and how do we study these areas
International Relations (IR) is the study of how nations / countries interact with each other within the framework of International Law and the principles laid out in international treaties such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These interactions are also referred to as global politics.
The World has changed since 1945 (end of World War 2)
How has the world changed ?
The collapse of the Berlin Wall, ending the bi-polar world order (Cold War) in 1989
Nuclear issues have intensified since more nations have acquired Nuclear Weapons (other than the 5 original Nuclear powers)
Energy and environmental concerns have become central to the global agenda (oil politics and global warming)
There is a greater focus on global economics / neo-liberalism and questions of poverty and development
Globalization of all aspects of society (political, economic, cultural / religious)
Terrorism and political violence have become serious security concerns
The most significant global event since the turn of the century has been….the events of September 11, 2001 (Attacks on the United States)
The dynamics of September 11 have brought about the introduction of the Global War On Terror
There has also been greater focus on regions of the world that were assumed to not be central to global politics prior to 1945 (eg. Middle East, Asia, Africa)
The role of religion, race, ethnic identity, class and gender have also become central to how countries / citizens of different nations interact with each other
POLS 102
Week 1 : Lecture 2
Introduction : What is Global Politics and International Relations and how do we study these areas
There has been a shift in the study of global politics from simply understanding and analyzing relations between states / nations / countries to focusing on relations between ALL actors on the global stage (including individuals and groups / transnational actors)
One of the ways of giving meaning to understanding WHY and HOW certain events unfold on the global stage is to apply THEORIES that constitute a body of ideas and knowledge which helps to explain these events and their IMPACT on us as human beings
There are primarily 2 ways of seeing the world in IR;
As we would LIKE it to be / OUGHT to be (Normative / Idealism)
As it really IS (Realist)
For many years the Realist worldview dominated the study of global politics / IR, (since 1945) however various other theoretical perspectives have emerged over the last few decades that have challenged realist thought
These include;
Liberalism / Pluralism (Possibility of Co-operation between Actors / Progressive politics)
Marxism / Structuralism (World Politics unfolds within the system of a global capitalist economy)
Constructivism (Human Agency has an important role in shaping world politics)
POLS 102
Week 1 : Lecture 3
Introduction : What is Global Politics and International Relations and how do we study these areas
The most recent phenomenon in world politics (1990 onwards) is that of globalization. This has defined how politics functions at both a local and international level, and basically refers to the interconnectedness of societies, and how one event in one part of the world can have a profound impact on another society elsewhere
Given the shift away from focusing on relations between states to relations between all actors (individual and group), the globalization of politics has meant that there is a focus on EVERY aspect of interaction between these actors, including economic, social and cultural aspects
There are some specific indicators that are characteristics of the globalization of politics. These include;
Economic transformation : World trade is more interdependent than before
Communications : Technological advancements have revolutionized how we communicate with each other / receive information. The global media plays an important role in this
Global culture : There seems to be a greater homogenization of a global culture, with primarily a western / Hollywood character shaping it
Homogenization of societies : Differences between societies appear to be diminishing at a rapid pace, particularly in an urban context
Time and space : The traditional idea of time and space has changed. The electronic / digital medium has changed how humans relate to each other, especially through the internet
Emergence of a global polity : Political allegiances of citizens have shifted from state allegiances to sub- state, transnational and international allegiances
Entrenchment of a cosmopolitan culture. People are thinking globally and acting locally
Emergence of a risk culture : Various epidemics such as Aids and security concerns such as terrorism have emerged, creating a “riskier” global environment, and states can no longer protect their citizens from these risks
There has over the last decade been both criticism and accolades for the impact that globalization has had on the world
One of the key concerns / criticisms has been that the traditional role of the state has been overtaken by the emergence of various other forces
A positive aspect of globalization has been that technological advancements have made many people’s lives easier in many respects, including economic development and standard of living. However some societies have experienced the reverse
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 4
The International Community and its Evolution and IR Theory
Definition of International Society (community) : Relations between politically organized human groupings, which occupy distinctive territories and enjoy and exercise a measure of independence from each other
This community is constituted by states, each of which have a i) permanent population, ii) occupy a defined territory, iii) have a central government, iv) is independent from all other similar governments
The principles on which this community functions is a common understanding / acceptance of the following, self-determination, non-intervention, right of self-defence and sovereignty
The framework which regulates relations in this community is the practice of diplomacy and the application of international law
Earliest record of “international society” dates back to roughly 2400 BC, where ancient city states had formal agreements between them
Brief History
The commonly accepted precursor to the contemporary international community is Ancient Greece/ Hellenic (500 – 100 BC), and Renaissance Italy (1300 – 1500 AD).
Ancient Greece consisted of city states, which were independent of each other but had a common culture.
Rome, eventually become the dominant political power in Europe, but was eventually replaced by other theocratic forces, such as Latin Christendom and Orthodox Christianity.
The Ottoman Empire (Islamic) became a powerful political force in Europe (from the mid 15th century) contesting for political power with Medieval Europe (dominated by Christianity and feudal practices)
There was a period of cultural enlightenment in the arts and sciences in Northern Italy between the 14th and 16th centuries which also brought about political enlightenment, with the establishment of the modern independent (city) states such as Venice, Florence and Milan
The renaissance period was important politically because of its contributions to the ideas of state-craft, realist thinking, power politics and diplomacy. Italian thinker Machiavelli’s writings were very influential in this regard
The influence of the renaissance period was tempered somewhat by the ongoing feudal wars in the rest of Europe.
The Hapsburg (Austro-Spanish) royal dynasty became very powerful in Europe and wanted to exert political hegemony and dominance.
They were however opposed by France and other countries such as Sweden, and a 30 year war broke out between the Hapsburgs and the anti-Hapsburg alliance.
This was eventually ended with the signing of 2 significant treaties, the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) and Treaty of Utrecht (1713), which laid out the basis for what has become the modern sovereign state.
Three key principles defined the Westphalian model of the state; i) the King is in charge in his own realm and every king is independent and equal to every other king, ii) the ruler determines the religion of his realm and iii) a balance of power must exist to prevent any one power become a hegemon in a region
The balance of power principle was demonstrated when France and its allies challenged the Hapsburgs, who were the dominant hegemonic power in Europe
Important political developments in this period were i) a recognition of the nature of sovereignty of defined territories and ii) the separation of state and religion (whereas previously Christianity as a faith had been influencing the functioning of states, referred to as Respublica Christiana
The period of European colonial expansion began formally in the late 1400s, with European exploration and the discovery of the “New World”
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 5
The International Community and its Evolution and IR Theory
Brief History cont…
The spread of European influence globally meant that Europe became the central power in world politics from around the late 15th century – mid 20th century
It was after 1945 that the United States began to arise as the world’s “super-power” and capitalism became truly globalised
There were however certain areas of the world, during the period of the 15th – 20th century that retained political power until they were forced to capitulate to European control. This included the Ottoman empire (based in Turkey) and Japan. These empires were however expected to abide by the norms of international law during the height of their power
The process of decolonization and struggles for self-determination within the colonies of Europe, in the mid – late 20th century marked a significant point of departure in world politics. More states were now members of the UN (created in 1945) and this meant that more territories demanded equal recognition in a global society
The Cold war (1945 – 89) was an important factor in shaping international society. It put into place certain criteria that defined who had power in the world (possession of nuclear technology / arms, the space race, economic independence and oil / energy politics)
The collapse of the Soviet Union, resulted in global capitalism becoming the most significant feature which defined a global society
Problems / Challenges of an International Community
There is an absence of a common underlying culture which cuts across all civilizations. Hence there is an ideological contestation between nations
If there is to be a global covenant unifying all nations, it must service the interests of all members of the international society, and not just a few
There is a huge disparity between the richest and poorest nations of the world, and this inequality means that states cannot engage equally on various levels
The emergence of regional political / cultural alliances (eg. Latin America) has meant that there can be no imposition of a singular culture, or else this regional diversity becomes threatened
Given that since 1945 international boundaries have become frozen, the ability to shuffle territorial boundaries in response to changing socio-political identities has been limited and this has led to greater political conflict over land and wars of self- determination (eg. Bosnia Herzegovina, Palestine / Israel, Kashmir)
The doctrine of non- intervention has meant that there are emerging security concerns where other members of the international community are bound by notions of sovereignty and cannot intervene in a country where there may be a need for outside intervention (eg. Zimbabwe)
International society (independent nations with national laws) is increasingly evolving into a world society (global village, with common concerns), where certain ideas such as environmental protection supersede territorial boundaries, however this comes with new threats. If one member of world society does not co-operate on key issues such as global warning, it inevitably impacts on other members of that society
The evolution of international society into a “world” society raises concerns about the continuing primacy of state sovereignty
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 6
The International Community and its Evolution and IR Theory
IR Theory
Liberalism
Liberalism can be seen as having its early roots in the thinking of Western philosophers such as John Locke, Immanuel Kant and Jeremy Bentham (from the enlightenment period – 18th c). Reason was central to the enlightenment movement. Kant in particular argued against what he called the “lawless state of savagery” in international relations, and called for perpetual peace amongst liberal states
WW 1 brought about a shift in thinking in IR which argued that peace is something that is not natural, but must be constructed. This idea was advanced most clearly by US President Woodrow Wilson with his 14 points document and the theoretical approach of Idealism. Forming a general association of nations that would subscribe to a system of collective security was central to his ideas and hence the League of Nations was formed, followed by the United nations
Liberalism in IR, presumes that the core values of justice, liberty, equality and peace are central to the political project
In 1989, F. Fukuyama wrote the End of History, which celebrated the triumph of liberal thinking, given that socialism had collapsed formally
Broad principles of liberalism in a contemporary context are; Collective security, cosmopolitan model of democracy, democratic peace, democracy promotion, enlightenment ideas, harmony of interests, idealism, integration, interdependence, normative ideals, pluralism, world government
Realism
Realism has intellectual roots in the thinking of people such as Machiavelli (15/16th c), T. Hobbes (16/17th c) and JJ Rousseau (18th c). Their ideas are often referred to as raison d’etat / reason of state.
Realism presumes that the state and its security are the most central features of world politics, and realists are skeptical of the idea of universal moral principles. It is therefore important for the state to have ultimate power
While there are several trajectories of realist thinking, all forms subscribe to what are referred to as the 3 Ss
Statism : Centrality of state and its monopoly to legitimately use force
Survival : All states are concerned with survival, and hence security is the most important item on the agenda
Self Help : In the international system, the state’s structures are the only form of preventing and countering the use of force and each state has to have its own mechanism of doing so, hence the necessity of having defence systems and ensuring a balance of power
Marxism
Emerges largely from the writings of Karl Marx (19th c). His ideas have been interpreted in various ways to give rise to competing schools of Marxist thought
Central idea of Marxism is that history is primarily about the economic development of society and the existence of classes
The basic tension in economics exists between the means of production and the relations of production, which is exploitative
The ultimate goal of Marxist philosophy is to overthrow the prevailing oppressive order and replace with a communist society, where wage labour and private property are abolished, and social relations are transformed
There are various other thinkers such as I. Wallerstein (world systems theory) and A. Gramsci who have applied Marxist ideas to interpret world politics
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 7
The International System : Actors, Organisations and International Law
It is assumed that relations in the international community exist between coherent, legal entities called states
However apart from state relations, there are other entities, such as inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), Multi-national or Trans-national companies (MNCs/ TNCs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), individuals and political formations such as liberation movements
There are almost 200 governments globally, including 191 members of the UN, app. 64000 major transnational companies (eg. Shell), app. 9000 single country NGOs (eg. Sierra Club, USA), 240 IGOs (eg. UN), and 6600 international NGOs (eg. Amnesty International)
The word transnational, has now come to describe the nature of most of these organizations
There are basically 2 types of actors in IR; state and non-state
STATE
The state has traditionally been the central unit for interaction at the international level
There are various challenges in terms of the relations between states, viz
There are different understandings of what state means
A lack of similarity between states
The tension between state systems and an international system
The differences between state and nation
NON-STATE
TNC’s
TNCs have become very influential in global politics and have a global presence by virtue of having branches in countries outside of their country of origin
There are now TNCs based in about 73 countries, 51 of them being developing nations, including 21 African states
The home countries from which most TNCs come from are as follows, 55 from 9 Western European states, 28 - USA, 8 –Japan, 3 – Canada, 2 – Australia, 1 each from Mexico, Singapore, Hong Kong and S. Korea
The impact of TNCs on world politics is significant in that, governments have now mostly lost control of financial flows of capital within and between their national boundaries
Because of the inter-connection of the global economy, a financial crisis in one part of the world, impacts the economies of other nations, eg. Credit crunch in the USA is affecting the banking and stock sector in parts of Asia and Europe
NGOs
There are national and international NGOs, which constitute themselves around a specific interest / issue
International NGOs usually have official recognition with the UN’s division for economic and social matters, viz. ECOSOC
The NGOs with official recognition can consult with ECOSOC on various matters that impact on global communities
An NGO cannot in principle be a profit-making body
Transnational NGOs have been very effective, over the last decade in drawing attention to issues that affect people in various countries at international forums, such as human rights violations, human trafficking, HIV Aids, global warming, etc
Some NGOs come together around a global campaign and form networks, such as Jubilee 2000 (mobilizing for debt-relief)
Non-legitimate groups, Individuals and Liberation movements
These have proliferated the global community in the last 20 years
They include criminal networks (eg. drug cartels), liberation movements who are mobilizing around self-determination (eg. Tamil Tigers, ETA, Hamas, etc) and are sometimes referred to as terrorist groupings, and individuals who may be associated with any of the above (Osama bin Ladin)
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 8
The International System : Actors, Organisations and International Law
The United Nations
The UN was set up in 1945, primarily by the allied states of WW 2
It has over 190 members, and all members must sign onto the UN Charter, which has 4 basic principles;
To maintain international peace and security
To develop friendly relations among nations
To co-operate in solving international problems
Promote respect for human rights
It has various organ bodies / components, which perform specific functions viz,
Security Council
General Assembly
Secretariat
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), which oversees various other bodies of the UN system, such as UNICEF
The Trusteeship Council
The International Court of Justice (ICJ)
The Functions of the UN are to ensure the four basic principles outlined above as well as deal with the contemporary challenges of the world
Challenges
Security and Peacekeeping
Development and Poverty
Environment
Humanitarian work
Health Concerns (HIV Aids, TB, etc)
Reform of the Functioning of the UN
POLS 102
Week 3 : Lecture 9
The International System : Actors, Organisations and International Law
International Law
Can be understood as a set of norms, rules and practices that facilitate a number of goals such as global order, co-existence and development
It derives its origins from natural law (divine law), which evolved into law of reciprocal accord (negotiated between states/ citizens)
It is heavily influenced by the thinking of legal philosophers such as Hugo Grotius (16/ 17th c) and Emerich de Vattel (18th c)
Modern international law has developed 4 distinctive characteristics; viz
Multilateral Legislation : Laws are constantly evolving across multilateral spaces and through formal and informal ways
Consent and legal obligation : It is assumed that states consent to being subjected to international law, and are bound by the notion of customary international law
Language and practice of justification : International Law has its own peculiar language / form of implementation which is unique to international relations
Discourse of institutional autonomy : There is a separation between political and legal powers, which gives international law autonomy
There are some basic terms which are used in international law
Customary International Law : These rules are binding on states, regardless of their explicit consent
Opinio Juris : Belief that a certain form of action is permitted by law
Jus cogens : These are basic norms that are considered so fundamental that states cannot violate them, eg a norm against aggression
Pacta sunt servanda : The principle that states must observe in good faith, the treaties that they are party to
Jus ad bellum : Laws of war that govern when it is permissible to use force or wage war
Jus in bello : Laws governing conduct once a war has been launched
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 10
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
International Regimes
Regimes have emerged as ‘delineated areas of rule-governed activity’ largely within the context of the Cold war
Regimes manage the way in which things work in the international community, eg. ensuring that people can travel safely throughout the globe without being attacked
There are two competing theoretical approaches to understanding how regimes work in the world, viz, realist and liberal
Realists assume that regimes allow states to co-ordinate activities, generate benefits based on national interest, and function according to underlying norms and principles, where power is the central feature
Liberals believe that regimes enable states to collaborate on activities, promote the common good, flourish when supported by a benign hegemon and advance globalization and a liberal world order
Regimes influence and shape how various aspects of life is managed in the global community, such as trade, communication, security, the environment, human rights, etc
There are 4 elements which define a regime;
Principles : Coherent body of statements / declarations about how the world works, eg In international trade the principle of free trade regulates how we sell and buy goods, as it is assumed that free trade maximizes global welfare
Norms : Specifies standards of behavior, eg. In trade, the norm would be to works towards reducing tariffs
Rules : Designed to reconcile conflicts which may arise between principles and norms
Decision making procedures : Defines specific prescriptions for behavior / shapes how decisions are to be taken on an issue, eg. voting, mandates etc
Power (according to realists) is a central aspect of how regimes benefit certain actors, eg. on environmental issues, if large co-operations make profits from polluting the atmosphere, they will apply pressure on states to not agree to reducing carbon emissions
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 11
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
Global Power and Security
The possession, use and exercise of power is the key component that ensures that security can be maintained
As H Bull argues, a balance of power is necessary in the international community to ensure that no one country is able to accumulate too much, and therefore aspire towards imperialist goals
There are various understandings of security. A generally used notion is that ;
“ A nation is secure to the extent to which it is not in danger of having to sacrifice its core values if it wishes to avoid war, and is able, if challenged, to maintain them by victory in such a war” W. Lippmann
Traditionally, security has been largely defined in militarized terms (Realist)
Neo-Realist thinking presumes that not much has changed since 1989, and relies on the following assumptions;
The international Community is anarchic, and there is no central authority capable of controlling state behavior
States that have sovereignty will develop offensive strategies to protect themselves and are therefore potentially dangerous to each other
Uncertainty and a lack of trust prevail in the international community, which will make nations always remain on guard
States will want to maintain their independence, and hence the survival instinct will always drive their behavior
Whiles states are meant to be rational, there will always the possibility of miscalculation, where states do not represent themselves in terms of the real state interests
All of these assumptions, according to neo-realists shape state behavior in terms of security concerns
Another branch of realist thinking, viz Contingent realism, argues that states will not always compete with each other on security issues, but can co-operate, depending on the circumstances. Security is therefore contingent.
Neo-Liberalism (liberal institutionalism), assumes that co-operation between international institutions (eg. economic and developmental) creates opportunities for maintaining security and therefore reducing the likelihood of going to war
Liberal thinking also supports the notion of maintaining democracy, because they believe that democratic states will not go to war with each other. This is referred to as Democratic peace theory
The idea of “Collective security” has become much more prominent in the contemporary period. There are 3 assumptions which shape this approach;
States must denounce the use of military force and agree to settle disputes peacefully
States must broaden their conception of national interest to consider the interests of the global community
States must overcome their fear and mistrust of other states
It is assumed that collective security mechanisms help create a more benign international system, where there is greater trust, confidence and co-operation
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 12
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
Security in the Contemporary Era : Alternative approaches
Social Constructivist Theory
This theory shares many of the assumptions of neo-realism, however believes that the fundamental structures of international relations are social rather than strictly material
This social aspect includes shared knowledge, material resources and practices, which are all, according to social constructivists, given meaning through the interaction and interface of the shared knowledge
This potentially means that meanings can be negotiated through a shared system and help in moving towards a more peaceful world
An example of Constructivist thinking is the role that was played by Russian leader Gorbachev in the late 1980s which led to the end of the Cold War. Once there was an agreement / understanding between USSR and US / West, that the cold war was really over, this was a shared knowledge, arrived at collectively, and had the potential for greater co-operation rather than conflict
Critical Security Studies approaches
Security Studies has become a formal sub-discipline within international relations which engages with security in a rigorous, analytical and critical way and has various streams
Critical Theory
Focuses on the way in which existing social / political relations and institutions have emerged and what can be done to change them, in order to emancipate human beings from restrictive structures
Feminist Approaches
Assumes that writings / works on IR in general, have been conceptualized / articulated from a masculine point of view, and that “security” issues usually advance male interests. They argue that if gender is made more mainstream in IR thought, it will result in a fundamentally different view of security and will force thinking about how patriarchy needs to be challenged
Post-Modernist
Concerns itself with the logic of interpretation and how meanings are constructed, and assumes that once the basic “soft-ware” component of thinking around security is replaced, with new ways of thinking, then behavior will change. This will mean that states will not behave in ways which lead to war more easily, but rather the opposite
Globalist Views of Security
The basic assumption is that a “global” society is more evident today than previously, and it transcends state frontiers, which are now fragmenting
This has had negative aspects such as the emergence of greater nationalist conflict and wars between ethnic communities (eg. Balkans, Rwanda)
According to globalist thinking, what is needed is a new politics of global responsibility, which cuts across dominant interests on a world scale
The acts of 9/ 11 radically transformed the security dynamic in the 21st century by foregrounding concepts such as axis of evil, religious fundamentalism, and shifted the focus on the growing erosion of civil liberties
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 10
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
International Regimes
Regimes have emerged as ‘delineated areas of rule-governed activity’ largely within the context of the Cold war
Regimes manage the way in which things work in the international community, eg. ensuring that people can travel safely throughout the globe without being attacked
There are two competing theoretical approaches to understanding how regimes work in the world, viz, realist and liberal
Realists assume that regimes allow states to co-ordinate activities, generate benefits based on national interest, and function according to underlying norms and principles, where power is the central feature
Liberals believe that regimes enable states to collaborate on activities, promote the common good, flourish when supported by a benign hegemon and advance globalization and a liberal world order
Regimes influence and shape how various aspects of life is managed in the global community, such as trade, communication, security, the environment, human rights, etc
There are 4 elements which define a regime;
Principles : Coherent body of statements / declarations about how the world works, eg In international trade the principle of free trade regulates how we sell and buy goods, as it is assumed that free trade maximizes global welfare
Norms : Specifies standards of behavior, eg. In trade, the norm would be to works towards reducing tariffs
Rules : Designed to reconcile conflicts which may arise between principles and norms
Decision making procedures : Defines specific prescriptions for behavior / shapes how decisions are to be taken on an issue, eg. voting, mandates etc
Power (according to realists) is a central aspect of how regimes benefit certain actors, eg. on environmental issues, if large co-operations make profits from polluting the atmosphere, they will apply pressure on states to not agree to reducing carbon emissions
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 11
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
Global Power and Security
The possession, use and exercise of power is the key component that ensures that security can be maintained
As H Bull argues, a balance of power is necessary in the international community to ensure that no one country is able to accumulate too much, and therefore aspire towards imperialist goals
There are various understandings of security. A generally used notion is that ;
“ A nation is secure to the extent to which it is not in danger of having to sacrifice its core values if it wishes to avoid war, and is able, if challenged, to maintain them by victory in such a war” W. Lippmann
Traditionally, security has been largely defined in militarized terms (Realist)
Neo-Realist thinking presumes that not much has changed since 1989, and relies on the following assumptions;
The international Community is anarchic, and there is no central authority capable of controlling state behavior
States that have sovereignty will develop offensive strategies to protect themselves and are therefore potentially dangerous to each other
Uncertainty and a lack of trust prevail in the international community, which will make nations always remain on guard
States will want to maintain their independence, and hence the survival instinct will always drive their behavior
Whiles states are meant to be rational, there will always the possibility of miscalculation, where states do not represent themselves in terms of the real state interests
All of these assumptions, according to neo-realists shape state behavior in terms of security concerns
Another branch of realist thinking, viz Contingent realism, argues that states will not always compete with each other on security issues, but can co-operate, depending on the circumstances. Security is therefore contingent.
Neo-Liberalism (liberal institutionalism), assumes that co-operation between international institutions (eg. economic and developmental) creates opportunities for maintaining security and therefore reducing the likelihood of going to war
Liberal thinking also supports the notion of maintaining democracy, because they believe that democratic states will not go to war with each other. This is referred to as Democratic peace theory
The idea of “Collective security” has become much more prominent in the contemporary period. There are 3 assumptions which shape this approach;
States must denounce the use of military force and agree to settle disputes peacefully
States must broaden their conception of national interest to consider the interests of the global community
States must overcome their fear and mistrust of other states
It is assumed that collective security mechanisms help create a more benign international system, where there is greater trust, confidence and co-operation
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 12
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
Security in the Contemporary Era : Alternative approaches
Social Constructivist Theory
This theory shares many of the assumptions of neo-realism, however believes that the fundamental structures of international relations are social rather than strictly material
This social aspect includes shared knowledge, material resources and practices, which are all, according to social constructivists, given meaning through the interaction and interface of the shared knowledge
This potentially means that meanings can be negotiated through a shared system and help in moving towards a more peaceful world
An example of Constructivist thinking is the role that was played by Russian leader Gorbachev in the late 1980s which led to the end of the Cold War. Once there was an agreement / understanding between USSR and US / West, that the cold war was really over, this was a shared knowledge, arrived at collectively, and had the potential for greater co-operation rather than conflict
Critical Security Studies approaches
Security Studies has become a formal sub-discipline within international relations which engages with security in a rigorous, analytical and critical way and has various streams
Critical Theory
Focuses on the way in which existing social / political relations and institutions have emerged and what can be done to change them, in order to emancipate human beings from restrictive structures
Feminist Approaches
Assumes that writings / works on IR in general, have been conceptualized / articulated from a masculine point of view, and that “security” issues usually advance male interests. They argue that if gender is made more mainstream in IR thought, it will result in a fundamentally different view of security and will force thinking about how patriarchy needs to be challenged
Post-Modernist
Concerns itself with the logic of interpretation and how meanings are constructed, and assumes that once the basic “soft-ware” component of thinking around security is replaced, with new ways of thinking, then behavior will change. This will mean that states will not behave in ways which lead to war more easily, but rather the opposite
Globalist Views of Security
The basic assumption is that a “global” society is more evident today than previously, and it transcends state frontiers, which are now fragmenting
This has had negative aspects such as the emergence of greater nationalist conflict and wars between ethnic communities (eg. Balkans, Rwanda)
According to globalist thinking, what is needed is a new politics of global responsibility, which cuts across dominant interests on a world scale
The acts of 9/ 11 radically transformed the security dynamic in the 21st century by foregrounding concepts such as axis of evil, religious fundamentalism, and shifted the focus on the growing erosion of civil liberties
POLS 102
Week 5 : Lecture 13
Issues in International Relations : Human Rights and Citizens Concerns, Political Violence and Conflict, Terrorism , Nuclear Proliferation, Identity based violence (Nationalism and Culture)
Humanitarian Intervention
- Is often described as “activity undertaken by a state, a group within a state, a group of states or an international organization which interferes coercively in the domestic affairs of another state. It is a discrete event having a beginning and an end, and is aimed at the authority structure of the target state. It is not necessarily lawful or unlawful, but it does break a conventional pattern of IR”, RJ Vincent
- It is considered controversial because to “intervene” in another state’s affairs would mean to violate the principle of sovereignty, and also Article 2(4) of UN charter, which claims forcible humanitarian intervention as being illegal
- It was never exercised formally during the cold war, and has only really been given attention from the early 1990s in response to growing conflicts around the world
- There are various factors that impact on the question of intervention, such as; i) is it totally justified from a moral and human perspective?, ii) who benefits?, iii) what are the military /security considerations in sending one’s troops to protect citizens of another country?, and iv) what are the power dynamics involved (decisions of security council, etc)?
- There are arguments for and against intervention
- For (Solidarism); i) Protection of Human Rights, ii) Legal interpretation of customary international law, which argues that over a period of time, certain measures / actions become necessary to protect the rule of law and, iii) Intervention is a moral requirement
- Against; i) Breach of sovereignty, ii) Violation of certain UN charter principles and iii) Statism : States should only have an obligation to their own citizens
While interventions didn’t formally take place during the cold war, states did “support” other states in various ways, eg. US military support of Afghanistan in the 1980s, when USSR invaded it, US support of Iraq in its war against Iran
There are examples of states acting in self defence, as opposed to for humanitarian reasons, for eg, Tanzania’s military intervention in Uganda during Idi Amin’s violence against his people, and Vietnam’s operation in Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge period
Post-Cold war interventions have been subjected to much interrogation. Some examples are;
International intervention in Northern Iraq, after it invaded Kuwait and oppression of Kurds (1991)
US / UN intervention in Somalia (1992 – 95)
French intervention in Rwandan genocide (1994)
Nato’s intervention in Kosovo (1999)
Questions have been raised in terms of whether these interventions have been successful or not, from a humanitarian and broader political perspective
Humanitarian interventions after 9/11 have raised questions around whether the Coalition armies in the Global War against Terror have agreed to make alliances with dictatorship governments in order to service the bigger goal of tacking terror, eg. Pakistan
Questions have also been raised around whether the Coalition armies are servicing their own narrow interests or humanitarian ones in the GWAT
POLS 102
Week 5 : Lecture 14
Issues in International Relations : Human Rights and Citizens Concerns, Political Violence and Conflict, Terrorism , Nuclear Proliferation, Identity based violence (Nationalism and Culture)
Human Rights Issues and Citizen’s Concerns : Poverty, Development and Hunger
State-centric approaches to IR until the late 1980s meant that the issue of poverty, development and hunger were not mainstream in the discipline. They were being addressed by “development” specialists
In the 1990’s the focus shifted and various sub-areas have developed within IR, that are tackling the issues critically and substantively
Poverty
Poverty is understood as a condition where people do not have access to resources to satisfy their basic needs, and are often unemployed. It is seen as a problem largely affecting the third world (south)
Development
Development is usually understood as a process that is synonymous with economic growth within the context of a free market economy (liberalism),
It is linked to the idea of poverty, ie, if a society is not developed (low GDP, minimal or no infrastructure and IT), it is poor
There are however various interpretations of development;
If all societies adopted the western model of development, there would be no real poverty and wealth would trickle down to all. There is meant to be a reliance on expert knowledge (top-down), that privileges expansion of the private sphere and advances the idea of capital accumulation and profit
If development was in the hands of ordinary people, then it would be more sustainable and benefit more people at a local level. There is supposed to be a reliance on participatory democracy (bottom up) that advances community interests and the voice of the collective
The end of the cold war however favored the first approach, with a minimalist state and an enhanced role of the market, usually called the “Washington Consensus”
Hunger
Hunger has become a chronic problem in some parts of the world
It is estimated that there are about 827.5 million people in about 50 countries who are starving / malnourished, and about 40 000 die daily from hunger related causes
There are 2 key explanations for why hunger exists
Population growth outstrips growth of food production and there is eventually not enough food for the number of people
Hunger exists because despite an increase in food production, distribution of food / resources is not effective. Access to food is controlled via various factors, such as north south divide, race, class etc
There are various programmes like the Millenium Development Goals that set targets in 2000, in order to reduce poverty and advance development. One key goal is to halve the proportion of people living on less than a dollar a day by 2015
POLS 102
Week 5 : Lecture 15
Issues in International Relations : Human Rights and Citizens Concerns, Political Violence and Conflict, Terrorism , Nuclear Proliferation, Identity based violence (Nationalism and Culture)
Political Violence and Conflict
The 20th/ 21st century has been witness to some of the worst political violence in human history
Some of the key concerns that have shaped the issue of political violence is the development of nuclear technology (cold war), the increase in terrorism and identity based violence
Terrorism
It is commonly accepted that there are four types of terrorist groups, viz, Left wing, right wing, ethno-nationalist/ separatist and religious / sacred
Religious terrorism has dominated from the late 1990s, and has gained prominence since 9/11
The existence of terrorism is usually driven by either cultural or economic reasons
Technology has shaped the way in which contemporary terrorism is unfolding
Nuclear proliferation
Given the dangerous nature of nuclear weapons / technology, there has been a greater focus on trying to reduce their proliferation since the end of the cold war
Their distribution within “rogue” circles has been considered especially problematic, and has created the dynamic of “legitimate” and “non-legitimate” ownership of nuclear technology
Identity based violence (Nationalism / culture)
An increase in nationalist behavior, since the end of the cold war, has resulted in groups / populations waging wars for i) self-determination and political independence, ii) cultural / religious reasons
These wars have led to the re-drawing of national boundaries, eg, the Balkans region
There has been a resurgence also of religious consciousness and contestation for ideological domination
S. Huntington has referred to the phenomenon of religious / cultural contestations as a “clash of civilizations
POLS 102
Week 6 : Lecture 16
Diplomacy and Globalization
Diplomacy
Diplomacy refers to a communications process between international actors that seeks through negotiation to resolve conflict short of war
It has become institutionalized and professionalized over many centuries. The earliest known diplomatic document dates back to 2500 BC
The current diplomatic system has its origins in 15th century Italy, when permanent embassies were first established
There are 2 broad understandings of diplomacy i) traditional diplomacy and ii) new diplomacy
Traditional diplomacy;
refers to the relationship that developed between the newly established European states, as well as the rules and practices that accompanied this phase of diplomacy
This included 2 important principles, i) diplomats should be able to conduct their business without fear/ hindrance (hence diplomatic immunity) and ii) the diplomat was a representative of a sovereign authority and hence should be given the same respect
Agendas included negotiating over territories, and peace discussions, and these discussions were usually conducted in secrecy
New diplomacy
When diplomatic processes failed to stop WW 1, there was a demand for the emergence of a “new” diplomacy
This included 2 basic ideas, i) greater public knowledge / involvement around diplomatic decisions and processes and ii) establishment of an international organization such as LoN and UN to act as a forum for the peaceful settlement of disputes
There were also several modifications to the traditional form of diplomacy, viz, i) states were no longer the only actors and ii) governments were changing the scope of their activities, moving towards caring for the economic welfare of their citizens
The manner in which states engaged with each other evolved, ie, from largely bi-lateral to multi-lateral
The agenda items also changed, introducing the notion of low politics (socio-economic) and high politics (security)
Cold War Diplomacy
- Nuclear Diplomacy : interactions between nuclear armed states
- Crisis diplomacy : Negotiations and communications before / during a crisis phase
- Summit Diplomacy : Direct meeting between heads of state to deal with major issues
Post-Cold War Diplomacy
- Includes dealing with questions of
i) Development (developmental diplomacy)
ii) Peace-keeping and enforcement
iii) Terrorism
Key Functions of Diplomatic Practice
Information Gathering
Policy Advice
Representation
Negotiation
Consular services
POLS 102
Week 6 : Lecture 17
Diplomacy and Globalization
Globalization
At the end of the cold war, there was a shift to a new world “order”
There are however differing understandings of this new world order that include;
continuation of Realist / state-centric model
liberal ideas that focus on the notion of inter-dependence
focus on human rights and emancipation
focus on the phenomenon of globalization, and whether it represents a specific political order
There are various typologies of order that have been identified, which currently exist and which are distinct from each other,viz,
Globalised (Global System) : End of national polities, societies and economies
International (States) : Concern with agenda of sovereignty and stability
World (Humanity) : Concern with agenda of rights, needs and justice
Globalised international (Globalised States) : Agenda of managing relations between states penetrated by global system, but still distinguishable within it
POLS 102
Week 6 : Lecture 18
Diplomacy and Globalization
Globalization (cont)
Elements of the contemporary order
‘Social State’ System : The state’s responsibilities in a contemporary context, have shifted towards taking on more “social welfare” roles. States have to also co-exist in a more inter-dependent world, develop and implement best practice, conform to human / civil rights and therefore have to be more social in their interactions with each other
Identity and the Nation State : There has been a focus on developing new political communities around specific identities, which have been largely nationalist, but also include religious and ethnic
Polarity and the collectivization of security : There has been a shift from a bi-polar system to the largely uni-polar order which is referred to as the age of the single super-power or US hegemony. As regards security, there is a preference for a collective approach to global security through establishing multi-lateral spaces and coalitions
Organization of production and exchange : The political economy of the current order has become internationalized, and there is often tension between the industrialized nations and the developing world in terms of production, trading and financial systems (eg, the issue of child labor). The current financial system is managed and regulated to a considerable degree by the IMF, World Bank and WTO
Multi-lateral management and governance : There has been the emergence of a complex network of international NGOs, which impact on and regulate various aspects of life (eg legal, environmental and economic). There is an ongoing debate about whether these effectively constitute a system of ‘global governance’
Regionalism : There has been a greater emphasis on regional formations, in terms of trade (EU), security (NATO) and general political development (AU). Regions also enjoy greater autonomy, while being part of an inter-dependent system
Liberal rights order : There has been a greater emphasis on developing a universal notion of human rights and liberal rights in particular. However this has also resulted in cultural and religious resistance to liberal ideas being imposed in some parts of the world
North South and the 2 world orders : There is a continued focus on the disparities between the developed north and the under-developed south, however there is also a resistance to the idea that these exist as monolithic blocs. There is a growing set of ideas that see huge variations and inequalities within states and regions and not only between them, which render the north / south divide as outdated
Challenges and issues around Globalization
What is the role of states in the face of a new global order ?
What is the role of citizens / global civil society in the face of a new global order ?
Is there a globalized international order which regulates human life ?
What are the implications of living in this globalized world order (distinct from the cold war order) ?
What future is there for the globalized world order ?
Week 1 : Lecture 1
Introduction : What is Global Politics and International Relations and how do we study these areas
International Relations (IR) is the study of how nations / countries interact with each other within the framework of International Law and the principles laid out in international treaties such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These interactions are also referred to as global politics.
The World has changed since 1945 (end of World War 2)
How has the world changed ?
The collapse of the Berlin Wall, ending the bi-polar world order (Cold War) in 1989
Nuclear issues have intensified since more nations have acquired Nuclear Weapons (other than the 5 original Nuclear powers)
Energy and environmental concerns have become central to the global agenda (oil politics and global warming)
There is a greater focus on global economics / neo-liberalism and questions of poverty and development
Globalization of all aspects of society (political, economic, cultural / religious)
Terrorism and political violence have become serious security concerns
The most significant global event since the turn of the century has been….the events of September 11, 2001 (Attacks on the United States)
The dynamics of September 11 have brought about the introduction of the Global War On Terror
There has also been greater focus on regions of the world that were assumed to not be central to global politics prior to 1945 (eg. Middle East, Asia, Africa)
The role of religion, race, ethnic identity, class and gender have also become central to how countries / citizens of different nations interact with each other
POLS 102
Week 1 : Lecture 2
Introduction : What is Global Politics and International Relations and how do we study these areas
There has been a shift in the study of global politics from simply understanding and analyzing relations between states / nations / countries to focusing on relations between ALL actors on the global stage (including individuals and groups / transnational actors)
One of the ways of giving meaning to understanding WHY and HOW certain events unfold on the global stage is to apply THEORIES that constitute a body of ideas and knowledge which helps to explain these events and their IMPACT on us as human beings
There are primarily 2 ways of seeing the world in IR;
As we would LIKE it to be / OUGHT to be (Normative / Idealism)
As it really IS (Realist)
For many years the Realist worldview dominated the study of global politics / IR, (since 1945) however various other theoretical perspectives have emerged over the last few decades that have challenged realist thought
These include;
Liberalism / Pluralism (Possibility of Co-operation between Actors / Progressive politics)
Marxism / Structuralism (World Politics unfolds within the system of a global capitalist economy)
Constructivism (Human Agency has an important role in shaping world politics)
POLS 102
Week 1 : Lecture 3
Introduction : What is Global Politics and International Relations and how do we study these areas
The most recent phenomenon in world politics (1990 onwards) is that of globalization. This has defined how politics functions at both a local and international level, and basically refers to the interconnectedness of societies, and how one event in one part of the world can have a profound impact on another society elsewhere
Given the shift away from focusing on relations between states to relations between all actors (individual and group), the globalization of politics has meant that there is a focus on EVERY aspect of interaction between these actors, including economic, social and cultural aspects
There are some specific indicators that are characteristics of the globalization of politics. These include;
Economic transformation : World trade is more interdependent than before
Communications : Technological advancements have revolutionized how we communicate with each other / receive information. The global media plays an important role in this
Global culture : There seems to be a greater homogenization of a global culture, with primarily a western / Hollywood character shaping it
Homogenization of societies : Differences between societies appear to be diminishing at a rapid pace, particularly in an urban context
Time and space : The traditional idea of time and space has changed. The electronic / digital medium has changed how humans relate to each other, especially through the internet
Emergence of a global polity : Political allegiances of citizens have shifted from state allegiances to sub- state, transnational and international allegiances
Entrenchment of a cosmopolitan culture. People are thinking globally and acting locally
Emergence of a risk culture : Various epidemics such as Aids and security concerns such as terrorism have emerged, creating a “riskier” global environment, and states can no longer protect their citizens from these risks
There has over the last decade been both criticism and accolades for the impact that globalization has had on the world
One of the key concerns / criticisms has been that the traditional role of the state has been overtaken by the emergence of various other forces
A positive aspect of globalization has been that technological advancements have made many people’s lives easier in many respects, including economic development and standard of living. However some societies have experienced the reverse
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 4
The International Community and its Evolution and IR Theory
Definition of International Society (community) : Relations between politically organized human groupings, which occupy distinctive territories and enjoy and exercise a measure of independence from each other
This community is constituted by states, each of which have a i) permanent population, ii) occupy a defined territory, iii) have a central government, iv) is independent from all other similar governments
The principles on which this community functions is a common understanding / acceptance of the following, self-determination, non-intervention, right of self-defence and sovereignty
The framework which regulates relations in this community is the practice of diplomacy and the application of international law
Earliest record of “international society” dates back to roughly 2400 BC, where ancient city states had formal agreements between them
Brief History
The commonly accepted precursor to the contemporary international community is Ancient Greece/ Hellenic (500 – 100 BC), and Renaissance Italy (1300 – 1500 AD).
Ancient Greece consisted of city states, which were independent of each other but had a common culture.
Rome, eventually become the dominant political power in Europe, but was eventually replaced by other theocratic forces, such as Latin Christendom and Orthodox Christianity.
The Ottoman Empire (Islamic) became a powerful political force in Europe (from the mid 15th century) contesting for political power with Medieval Europe (dominated by Christianity and feudal practices)
There was a period of cultural enlightenment in the arts and sciences in Northern Italy between the 14th and 16th centuries which also brought about political enlightenment, with the establishment of the modern independent (city) states such as Venice, Florence and Milan
The renaissance period was important politically because of its contributions to the ideas of state-craft, realist thinking, power politics and diplomacy. Italian thinker Machiavelli’s writings were very influential in this regard
The influence of the renaissance period was tempered somewhat by the ongoing feudal wars in the rest of Europe.
The Hapsburg (Austro-Spanish) royal dynasty became very powerful in Europe and wanted to exert political hegemony and dominance.
They were however opposed by France and other countries such as Sweden, and a 30 year war broke out between the Hapsburgs and the anti-Hapsburg alliance.
This was eventually ended with the signing of 2 significant treaties, the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) and Treaty of Utrecht (1713), which laid out the basis for what has become the modern sovereign state.
Three key principles defined the Westphalian model of the state; i) the King is in charge in his own realm and every king is independent and equal to every other king, ii) the ruler determines the religion of his realm and iii) a balance of power must exist to prevent any one power become a hegemon in a region
The balance of power principle was demonstrated when France and its allies challenged the Hapsburgs, who were the dominant hegemonic power in Europe
Important political developments in this period were i) a recognition of the nature of sovereignty of defined territories and ii) the separation of state and religion (whereas previously Christianity as a faith had been influencing the functioning of states, referred to as Respublica Christiana
The period of European colonial expansion began formally in the late 1400s, with European exploration and the discovery of the “New World”
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 5
The International Community and its Evolution and IR Theory
Brief History cont…
The spread of European influence globally meant that Europe became the central power in world politics from around the late 15th century – mid 20th century
It was after 1945 that the United States began to arise as the world’s “super-power” and capitalism became truly globalised
There were however certain areas of the world, during the period of the 15th – 20th century that retained political power until they were forced to capitulate to European control. This included the Ottoman empire (based in Turkey) and Japan. These empires were however expected to abide by the norms of international law during the height of their power
The process of decolonization and struggles for self-determination within the colonies of Europe, in the mid – late 20th century marked a significant point of departure in world politics. More states were now members of the UN (created in 1945) and this meant that more territories demanded equal recognition in a global society
The Cold war (1945 – 89) was an important factor in shaping international society. It put into place certain criteria that defined who had power in the world (possession of nuclear technology / arms, the space race, economic independence and oil / energy politics)
The collapse of the Soviet Union, resulted in global capitalism becoming the most significant feature which defined a global society
Problems / Challenges of an International Community
There is an absence of a common underlying culture which cuts across all civilizations. Hence there is an ideological contestation between nations
If there is to be a global covenant unifying all nations, it must service the interests of all members of the international society, and not just a few
There is a huge disparity between the richest and poorest nations of the world, and this inequality means that states cannot engage equally on various levels
The emergence of regional political / cultural alliances (eg. Latin America) has meant that there can be no imposition of a singular culture, or else this regional diversity becomes threatened
Given that since 1945 international boundaries have become frozen, the ability to shuffle territorial boundaries in response to changing socio-political identities has been limited and this has led to greater political conflict over land and wars of self- determination (eg. Bosnia Herzegovina, Palestine / Israel, Kashmir)
The doctrine of non- intervention has meant that there are emerging security concerns where other members of the international community are bound by notions of sovereignty and cannot intervene in a country where there may be a need for outside intervention (eg. Zimbabwe)
International society (independent nations with national laws) is increasingly evolving into a world society (global village, with common concerns), where certain ideas such as environmental protection supersede territorial boundaries, however this comes with new threats. If one member of world society does not co-operate on key issues such as global warning, it inevitably impacts on other members of that society
The evolution of international society into a “world” society raises concerns about the continuing primacy of state sovereignty
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 6
The International Community and its Evolution and IR Theory
IR Theory
Liberalism
Liberalism can be seen as having its early roots in the thinking of Western philosophers such as John Locke, Immanuel Kant and Jeremy Bentham (from the enlightenment period – 18th c). Reason was central to the enlightenment movement. Kant in particular argued against what he called the “lawless state of savagery” in international relations, and called for perpetual peace amongst liberal states
WW 1 brought about a shift in thinking in IR which argued that peace is something that is not natural, but must be constructed. This idea was advanced most clearly by US President Woodrow Wilson with his 14 points document and the theoretical approach of Idealism. Forming a general association of nations that would subscribe to a system of collective security was central to his ideas and hence the League of Nations was formed, followed by the United nations
Liberalism in IR, presumes that the core values of justice, liberty, equality and peace are central to the political project
In 1989, F. Fukuyama wrote the End of History, which celebrated the triumph of liberal thinking, given that socialism had collapsed formally
Broad principles of liberalism in a contemporary context are; Collective security, cosmopolitan model of democracy, democratic peace, democracy promotion, enlightenment ideas, harmony of interests, idealism, integration, interdependence, normative ideals, pluralism, world government
Realism
Realism has intellectual roots in the thinking of people such as Machiavelli (15/16th c), T. Hobbes (16/17th c) and JJ Rousseau (18th c). Their ideas are often referred to as raison d’etat / reason of state.
Realism presumes that the state and its security are the most central features of world politics, and realists are skeptical of the idea of universal moral principles. It is therefore important for the state to have ultimate power
While there are several trajectories of realist thinking, all forms subscribe to what are referred to as the 3 Ss
Statism : Centrality of state and its monopoly to legitimately use force
Survival : All states are concerned with survival, and hence security is the most important item on the agenda
Self Help : In the international system, the state’s structures are the only form of preventing and countering the use of force and each state has to have its own mechanism of doing so, hence the necessity of having defence systems and ensuring a balance of power
Marxism
Emerges largely from the writings of Karl Marx (19th c). His ideas have been interpreted in various ways to give rise to competing schools of Marxist thought
Central idea of Marxism is that history is primarily about the economic development of society and the existence of classes
The basic tension in economics exists between the means of production and the relations of production, which is exploitative
The ultimate goal of Marxist philosophy is to overthrow the prevailing oppressive order and replace with a communist society, where wage labour and private property are abolished, and social relations are transformed
There are various other thinkers such as I. Wallerstein (world systems theory) and A. Gramsci who have applied Marxist ideas to interpret world politics
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 7
The International System : Actors, Organisations and International Law
It is assumed that relations in the international community exist between coherent, legal entities called states
However apart from state relations, there are other entities, such as inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), Multi-national or Trans-national companies (MNCs/ TNCs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), individuals and political formations such as liberation movements
There are almost 200 governments globally, including 191 members of the UN, app. 64000 major transnational companies (eg. Shell), app. 9000 single country NGOs (eg. Sierra Club, USA), 240 IGOs (eg. UN), and 6600 international NGOs (eg. Amnesty International)
The word transnational, has now come to describe the nature of most of these organizations
There are basically 2 types of actors in IR; state and non-state
STATE
The state has traditionally been the central unit for interaction at the international level
There are various challenges in terms of the relations between states, viz
There are different understandings of what state means
A lack of similarity between states
The tension between state systems and an international system
The differences between state and nation
NON-STATE
TNC’s
TNCs have become very influential in global politics and have a global presence by virtue of having branches in countries outside of their country of origin
There are now TNCs based in about 73 countries, 51 of them being developing nations, including 21 African states
The home countries from which most TNCs come from are as follows, 55 from 9 Western European states, 28 - USA, 8 –Japan, 3 – Canada, 2 – Australia, 1 each from Mexico, Singapore, Hong Kong and S. Korea
The impact of TNCs on world politics is significant in that, governments have now mostly lost control of financial flows of capital within and between their national boundaries
Because of the inter-connection of the global economy, a financial crisis in one part of the world, impacts the economies of other nations, eg. Credit crunch in the USA is affecting the banking and stock sector in parts of Asia and Europe
NGOs
There are national and international NGOs, which constitute themselves around a specific interest / issue
International NGOs usually have official recognition with the UN’s division for economic and social matters, viz. ECOSOC
The NGOs with official recognition can consult with ECOSOC on various matters that impact on global communities
An NGO cannot in principle be a profit-making body
Transnational NGOs have been very effective, over the last decade in drawing attention to issues that affect people in various countries at international forums, such as human rights violations, human trafficking, HIV Aids, global warming, etc
Some NGOs come together around a global campaign and form networks, such as Jubilee 2000 (mobilizing for debt-relief)
Non-legitimate groups, Individuals and Liberation movements
These have proliferated the global community in the last 20 years
They include criminal networks (eg. drug cartels), liberation movements who are mobilizing around self-determination (eg. Tamil Tigers, ETA, Hamas, etc) and are sometimes referred to as terrorist groupings, and individuals who may be associated with any of the above (Osama bin Ladin)
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 8
The International System : Actors, Organisations and International Law
The United Nations
The UN was set up in 1945, primarily by the allied states of WW 2
It has over 190 members, and all members must sign onto the UN Charter, which has 4 basic principles;
To maintain international peace and security
To develop friendly relations among nations
To co-operate in solving international problems
Promote respect for human rights
It has various organ bodies / components, which perform specific functions viz,
Security Council
General Assembly
Secretariat
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), which oversees various other bodies of the UN system, such as UNICEF
The Trusteeship Council
The International Court of Justice (ICJ)
The Functions of the UN are to ensure the four basic principles outlined above as well as deal with the contemporary challenges of the world
Challenges
Security and Peacekeeping
Development and Poverty
Environment
Humanitarian work
Health Concerns (HIV Aids, TB, etc)
Reform of the Functioning of the UN
POLS 102
Week 3 : Lecture 9
The International System : Actors, Organisations and International Law
International Law
Can be understood as a set of norms, rules and practices that facilitate a number of goals such as global order, co-existence and development
It derives its origins from natural law (divine law), which evolved into law of reciprocal accord (negotiated between states/ citizens)
It is heavily influenced by the thinking of legal philosophers such as Hugo Grotius (16/ 17th c) and Emerich de Vattel (18th c)
Modern international law has developed 4 distinctive characteristics; viz
Multilateral Legislation : Laws are constantly evolving across multilateral spaces and through formal and informal ways
Consent and legal obligation : It is assumed that states consent to being subjected to international law, and are bound by the notion of customary international law
Language and practice of justification : International Law has its own peculiar language / form of implementation which is unique to international relations
Discourse of institutional autonomy : There is a separation between political and legal powers, which gives international law autonomy
There are some basic terms which are used in international law
Customary International Law : These rules are binding on states, regardless of their explicit consent
Opinio Juris : Belief that a certain form of action is permitted by law
Jus cogens : These are basic norms that are considered so fundamental that states cannot violate them, eg a norm against aggression
Pacta sunt servanda : The principle that states must observe in good faith, the treaties that they are party to
Jus ad bellum : Laws of war that govern when it is permissible to use force or wage war
Jus in bello : Laws governing conduct once a war has been launched
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 10
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
International Regimes
Regimes have emerged as ‘delineated areas of rule-governed activity’ largely within the context of the Cold war
Regimes manage the way in which things work in the international community, eg. ensuring that people can travel safely throughout the globe without being attacked
There are two competing theoretical approaches to understanding how regimes work in the world, viz, realist and liberal
Realists assume that regimes allow states to co-ordinate activities, generate benefits based on national interest, and function according to underlying norms and principles, where power is the central feature
Liberals believe that regimes enable states to collaborate on activities, promote the common good, flourish when supported by a benign hegemon and advance globalization and a liberal world order
Regimes influence and shape how various aspects of life is managed in the global community, such as trade, communication, security, the environment, human rights, etc
There are 4 elements which define a regime;
Principles : Coherent body of statements / declarations about how the world works, eg In international trade the principle of free trade regulates how we sell and buy goods, as it is assumed that free trade maximizes global welfare
Norms : Specifies standards of behavior, eg. In trade, the norm would be to works towards reducing tariffs
Rules : Designed to reconcile conflicts which may arise between principles and norms
Decision making procedures : Defines specific prescriptions for behavior / shapes how decisions are to be taken on an issue, eg. voting, mandates etc
Power (according to realists) is a central aspect of how regimes benefit certain actors, eg. on environmental issues, if large co-operations make profits from polluting the atmosphere, they will apply pressure on states to not agree to reducing carbon emissions
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 11
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
Global Power and Security
The possession, use and exercise of power is the key component that ensures that security can be maintained
As H Bull argues, a balance of power is necessary in the international community to ensure that no one country is able to accumulate too much, and therefore aspire towards imperialist goals
There are various understandings of security. A generally used notion is that ;
“ A nation is secure to the extent to which it is not in danger of having to sacrifice its core values if it wishes to avoid war, and is able, if challenged, to maintain them by victory in such a war” W. Lippmann
Traditionally, security has been largely defined in militarized terms (Realist)
Neo-Realist thinking presumes that not much has changed since 1989, and relies on the following assumptions;
The international Community is anarchic, and there is no central authority capable of controlling state behavior
States that have sovereignty will develop offensive strategies to protect themselves and are therefore potentially dangerous to each other
Uncertainty and a lack of trust prevail in the international community, which will make nations always remain on guard
States will want to maintain their independence, and hence the survival instinct will always drive their behavior
Whiles states are meant to be rational, there will always the possibility of miscalculation, where states do not represent themselves in terms of the real state interests
All of these assumptions, according to neo-realists shape state behavior in terms of security concerns
Another branch of realist thinking, viz Contingent realism, argues that states will not always compete with each other on security issues, but can co-operate, depending on the circumstances. Security is therefore contingent.
Neo-Liberalism (liberal institutionalism), assumes that co-operation between international institutions (eg. economic and developmental) creates opportunities for maintaining security and therefore reducing the likelihood of going to war
Liberal thinking also supports the notion of maintaining democracy, because they believe that democratic states will not go to war with each other. This is referred to as Democratic peace theory
The idea of “Collective security” has become much more prominent in the contemporary period. There are 3 assumptions which shape this approach;
States must denounce the use of military force and agree to settle disputes peacefully
States must broaden their conception of national interest to consider the interests of the global community
States must overcome their fear and mistrust of other states
It is assumed that collective security mechanisms help create a more benign international system, where there is greater trust, confidence and co-operation
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 12
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
Security in the Contemporary Era : Alternative approaches
Social Constructivist Theory
This theory shares many of the assumptions of neo-realism, however believes that the fundamental structures of international relations are social rather than strictly material
This social aspect includes shared knowledge, material resources and practices, which are all, according to social constructivists, given meaning through the interaction and interface of the shared knowledge
This potentially means that meanings can be negotiated through a shared system and help in moving towards a more peaceful world
An example of Constructivist thinking is the role that was played by Russian leader Gorbachev in the late 1980s which led to the end of the Cold War. Once there was an agreement / understanding between USSR and US / West, that the cold war was really over, this was a shared knowledge, arrived at collectively, and had the potential for greater co-operation rather than conflict
Critical Security Studies approaches
Security Studies has become a formal sub-discipline within international relations which engages with security in a rigorous, analytical and critical way and has various streams
Critical Theory
Focuses on the way in which existing social / political relations and institutions have emerged and what can be done to change them, in order to emancipate human beings from restrictive structures
Feminist Approaches
Assumes that writings / works on IR in general, have been conceptualized / articulated from a masculine point of view, and that “security” issues usually advance male interests. They argue that if gender is made more mainstream in IR thought, it will result in a fundamentally different view of security and will force thinking about how patriarchy needs to be challenged
Post-Modernist
Concerns itself with the logic of interpretation and how meanings are constructed, and assumes that once the basic “soft-ware” component of thinking around security is replaced, with new ways of thinking, then behavior will change. This will mean that states will not behave in ways which lead to war more easily, but rather the opposite
Globalist Views of Security
The basic assumption is that a “global” society is more evident today than previously, and it transcends state frontiers, which are now fragmenting
This has had negative aspects such as the emergence of greater nationalist conflict and wars between ethnic communities (eg. Balkans, Rwanda)
According to globalist thinking, what is needed is a new politics of global responsibility, which cuts across dominant interests on a world scale
The acts of 9/ 11 radically transformed the security dynamic in the 21st century by foregrounding concepts such as axis of evil, religious fundamentalism, and shifted the focus on the growing erosion of civil liberties
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 10
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
International Regimes
Regimes have emerged as ‘delineated areas of rule-governed activity’ largely within the context of the Cold war
Regimes manage the way in which things work in the international community, eg. ensuring that people can travel safely throughout the globe without being attacked
There are two competing theoretical approaches to understanding how regimes work in the world, viz, realist and liberal
Realists assume that regimes allow states to co-ordinate activities, generate benefits based on national interest, and function according to underlying norms and principles, where power is the central feature
Liberals believe that regimes enable states to collaborate on activities, promote the common good, flourish when supported by a benign hegemon and advance globalization and a liberal world order
Regimes influence and shape how various aspects of life is managed in the global community, such as trade, communication, security, the environment, human rights, etc
There are 4 elements which define a regime;
Principles : Coherent body of statements / declarations about how the world works, eg In international trade the principle of free trade regulates how we sell and buy goods, as it is assumed that free trade maximizes global welfare
Norms : Specifies standards of behavior, eg. In trade, the norm would be to works towards reducing tariffs
Rules : Designed to reconcile conflicts which may arise between principles and norms
Decision making procedures : Defines specific prescriptions for behavior / shapes how decisions are to be taken on an issue, eg. voting, mandates etc
Power (according to realists) is a central aspect of how regimes benefit certain actors, eg. on environmental issues, if large co-operations make profits from polluting the atmosphere, they will apply pressure on states to not agree to reducing carbon emissions
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 11
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
Global Power and Security
The possession, use and exercise of power is the key component that ensures that security can be maintained
As H Bull argues, a balance of power is necessary in the international community to ensure that no one country is able to accumulate too much, and therefore aspire towards imperialist goals
There are various understandings of security. A generally used notion is that ;
“ A nation is secure to the extent to which it is not in danger of having to sacrifice its core values if it wishes to avoid war, and is able, if challenged, to maintain them by victory in such a war” W. Lippmann
Traditionally, security has been largely defined in militarized terms (Realist)
Neo-Realist thinking presumes that not much has changed since 1989, and relies on the following assumptions;
The international Community is anarchic, and there is no central authority capable of controlling state behavior
States that have sovereignty will develop offensive strategies to protect themselves and are therefore potentially dangerous to each other
Uncertainty and a lack of trust prevail in the international community, which will make nations always remain on guard
States will want to maintain their independence, and hence the survival instinct will always drive their behavior
Whiles states are meant to be rational, there will always the possibility of miscalculation, where states do not represent themselves in terms of the real state interests
All of these assumptions, according to neo-realists shape state behavior in terms of security concerns
Another branch of realist thinking, viz Contingent realism, argues that states will not always compete with each other on security issues, but can co-operate, depending on the circumstances. Security is therefore contingent.
Neo-Liberalism (liberal institutionalism), assumes that co-operation between international institutions (eg. economic and developmental) creates opportunities for maintaining security and therefore reducing the likelihood of going to war
Liberal thinking also supports the notion of maintaining democracy, because they believe that democratic states will not go to war with each other. This is referred to as Democratic peace theory
The idea of “Collective security” has become much more prominent in the contemporary period. There are 3 assumptions which shape this approach;
States must denounce the use of military force and agree to settle disputes peacefully
States must broaden their conception of national interest to consider the interests of the global community
States must overcome their fear and mistrust of other states
It is assumed that collective security mechanisms help create a more benign international system, where there is greater trust, confidence and co-operation
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 12
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
Security in the Contemporary Era : Alternative approaches
Social Constructivist Theory
This theory shares many of the assumptions of neo-realism, however believes that the fundamental structures of international relations are social rather than strictly material
This social aspect includes shared knowledge, material resources and practices, which are all, according to social constructivists, given meaning through the interaction and interface of the shared knowledge
This potentially means that meanings can be negotiated through a shared system and help in moving towards a more peaceful world
An example of Constructivist thinking is the role that was played by Russian leader Gorbachev in the late 1980s which led to the end of the Cold War. Once there was an agreement / understanding between USSR and US / West, that the cold war was really over, this was a shared knowledge, arrived at collectively, and had the potential for greater co-operation rather than conflict
Critical Security Studies approaches
Security Studies has become a formal sub-discipline within international relations which engages with security in a rigorous, analytical and critical way and has various streams
Critical Theory
Focuses on the way in which existing social / political relations and institutions have emerged and what can be done to change them, in order to emancipate human beings from restrictive structures
Feminist Approaches
Assumes that writings / works on IR in general, have been conceptualized / articulated from a masculine point of view, and that “security” issues usually advance male interests. They argue that if gender is made more mainstream in IR thought, it will result in a fundamentally different view of security and will force thinking about how patriarchy needs to be challenged
Post-Modernist
Concerns itself with the logic of interpretation and how meanings are constructed, and assumes that once the basic “soft-ware” component of thinking around security is replaced, with new ways of thinking, then behavior will change. This will mean that states will not behave in ways which lead to war more easily, but rather the opposite
Globalist Views of Security
The basic assumption is that a “global” society is more evident today than previously, and it transcends state frontiers, which are now fragmenting
This has had negative aspects such as the emergence of greater nationalist conflict and wars between ethnic communities (eg. Balkans, Rwanda)
According to globalist thinking, what is needed is a new politics of global responsibility, which cuts across dominant interests on a world scale
The acts of 9/ 11 radically transformed the security dynamic in the 21st century by foregrounding concepts such as axis of evil, religious fundamentalism, and shifted the focus on the growing erosion of civil liberties
POLS 102
Week 5 : Lecture 13
Issues in International Relations : Human Rights and Citizens Concerns, Political Violence and Conflict, Terrorism , Nuclear Proliferation, Identity based violence (Nationalism and Culture)
Humanitarian Intervention
- Is often described as “activity undertaken by a state, a group within a state, a group of states or an international organization which interferes coercively in the domestic affairs of another state. It is a discrete event having a beginning and an end, and is aimed at the authority structure of the target state. It is not necessarily lawful or unlawful, but it does break a conventional pattern of IR”, RJ Vincent
- It is considered controversial because to “intervene” in another state’s affairs would mean to violate the principle of sovereignty, and also Article 2(4) of UN charter, which claims forcible humanitarian intervention as being illegal
- It was never exercised formally during the cold war, and has only really been given attention from the early 1990s in response to growing conflicts around the world
- There are various factors that impact on the question of intervention, such as; i) is it totally justified from a moral and human perspective?, ii) who benefits?, iii) what are the military /security considerations in sending one’s troops to protect citizens of another country?, and iv) what are the power dynamics involved (decisions of security council, etc)?
- There are arguments for and against intervention
- For (Solidarism); i) Protection of Human Rights, ii) Legal interpretation of customary international law, which argues that over a period of time, certain measures / actions become necessary to protect the rule of law and, iii) Intervention is a moral requirement
- Against; i) Breach of sovereignty, ii) Violation of certain UN charter principles and iii) Statism : States should only have an obligation to their own citizens
While interventions didn’t formally take place during the cold war, states did “support” other states in various ways, eg. US military support of Afghanistan in the 1980s, when USSR invaded it, US support of Iraq in its war against Iran
There are examples of states acting in self defence, as opposed to for humanitarian reasons, for eg, Tanzania’s military intervention in Uganda during Idi Amin’s violence against his people, and Vietnam’s operation in Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge period
Post-Cold war interventions have been subjected to much interrogation. Some examples are;
International intervention in Northern Iraq, after it invaded Kuwait and oppression of Kurds (1991)
US / UN intervention in Somalia (1992 – 95)
French intervention in Rwandan genocide (1994)
Nato’s intervention in Kosovo (1999)
Questions have been raised in terms of whether these interventions have been successful or not, from a humanitarian and broader political perspective
Humanitarian interventions after 9/11 have raised questions around whether the Coalition armies in the Global War against Terror have agreed to make alliances with dictatorship governments in order to service the bigger goal of tacking terror, eg. Pakistan
Questions have also been raised around whether the Coalition armies are servicing their own narrow interests or humanitarian ones in the GWAT
POLS 102
Week 5 : Lecture 14
Issues in International Relations : Human Rights and Citizens Concerns, Political Violence and Conflict, Terrorism , Nuclear Proliferation, Identity based violence (Nationalism and Culture)
Human Rights Issues and Citizen’s Concerns : Poverty, Development and Hunger
State-centric approaches to IR until the late 1980s meant that the issue of poverty, development and hunger were not mainstream in the discipline. They were being addressed by “development” specialists
In the 1990’s the focus shifted and various sub-areas have developed within IR, that are tackling the issues critically and substantively
Poverty
Poverty is understood as a condition where people do not have access to resources to satisfy their basic needs, and are often unemployed. It is seen as a problem largely affecting the third world (south)
Development
Development is usually understood as a process that is synonymous with economic growth within the context of a free market economy (liberalism),
It is linked to the idea of poverty, ie, if a society is not developed (low GDP, minimal or no infrastructure and IT), it is poor
There are however various interpretations of development;
If all societies adopted the western model of development, there would be no real poverty and wealth would trickle down to all. There is meant to be a reliance on expert knowledge (top-down), that privileges expansion of the private sphere and advances the idea of capital accumulation and profit
If development was in the hands of ordinary people, then it would be more sustainable and benefit more people at a local level. There is supposed to be a reliance on participatory democracy (bottom up) that advances community interests and the voice of the collective
The end of the cold war however favored the first approach, with a minimalist state and an enhanced role of the market, usually called the “Washington Consensus”
Hunger
Hunger has become a chronic problem in some parts of the world
It is estimated that there are about 827.5 million people in about 50 countries who are starving / malnourished, and about 40 000 die daily from hunger related causes
There are 2 key explanations for why hunger exists
Population growth outstrips growth of food production and there is eventually not enough food for the number of people
Hunger exists because despite an increase in food production, distribution of food / resources is not effective. Access to food is controlled via various factors, such as north south divide, race, class etc
There are various programmes like the Millenium Development Goals that set targets in 2000, in order to reduce poverty and advance development. One key goal is to halve the proportion of people living on less than a dollar a day by 2015
POLS 102
Week 5 : Lecture 15
Issues in International Relations : Human Rights and Citizens Concerns, Political Violence and Conflict, Terrorism , Nuclear Proliferation, Identity based violence (Nationalism and Culture)
Political Violence and Conflict
The 20th/ 21st century has been witness to some of the worst political violence in human history
Some of the key concerns that have shaped the issue of political violence is the development of nuclear technology (cold war), the increase in terrorism and identity based violence
Terrorism
It is commonly accepted that there are four types of terrorist groups, viz, Left wing, right wing, ethno-nationalist/ separatist and religious / sacred
Religious terrorism has dominated from the late 1990s, and has gained prominence since 9/11
The existence of terrorism is usually driven by either cultural or economic reasons
Technology has shaped the way in which contemporary terrorism is unfolding
Nuclear proliferation
Given the dangerous nature of nuclear weapons / technology, there has been a greater focus on trying to reduce their proliferation since the end of the cold war
Their distribution within “rogue” circles has been considered especially problematic, and has created the dynamic of “legitimate” and “non-legitimate” ownership of nuclear technology
Identity based violence (Nationalism / culture)
An increase in nationalist behavior, since the end of the cold war, has resulted in groups / populations waging wars for i) self-determination and political independence, ii) cultural / religious reasons
These wars have led to the re-drawing of national boundaries, eg, the Balkans region
There has been a resurgence also of religious consciousness and contestation for ideological domination
S. Huntington has referred to the phenomenon of religious / cultural contestations as a “clash of civilizations
POLS 102
Week 6 : Lecture 16
Diplomacy and Globalization
Diplomacy
Diplomacy refers to a communications process between international actors that seeks through negotiation to resolve conflict short of war
It has become institutionalized and professionalized over many centuries. The earliest known diplomatic document dates back to 2500 BC
The current diplomatic system has its origins in 15th century Italy, when permanent embassies were first established
There are 2 broad understandings of diplomacy i) traditional diplomacy and ii) new diplomacy
Traditional diplomacy;
refers to the relationship that developed between the newly established European states, as well as the rules and practices that accompanied this phase of diplomacy
This included 2 important principles, i) diplomats should be able to conduct their business without fear/ hindrance (hence diplomatic immunity) and ii) the diplomat was a representative of a sovereign authority and hence should be given the same respect
Agendas included negotiating over territories, and peace discussions, and these discussions were usually conducted in secrecy
New diplomacy
When diplomatic processes failed to stop WW 1, there was a demand for the emergence of a “new” diplomacy
This included 2 basic ideas, i) greater public knowledge / involvement around diplomatic decisions and processes and ii) establishment of an international organization such as LoN and UN to act as a forum for the peaceful settlement of disputes
There were also several modifications to the traditional form of diplomacy, viz, i) states were no longer the only actors and ii) governments were changing the scope of their activities, moving towards caring for the economic welfare of their citizens
The manner in which states engaged with each other evolved, ie, from largely bi-lateral to multi-lateral
The agenda items also changed, introducing the notion of low politics (socio-economic) and high politics (security)
Cold War Diplomacy
- Nuclear Diplomacy : interactions between nuclear armed states
- Crisis diplomacy : Negotiations and communications before / during a crisis phase
- Summit Diplomacy : Direct meeting between heads of state to deal with major issues
Post-Cold War Diplomacy
- Includes dealing with questions of
i) Development (developmental diplomacy)
ii) Peace-keeping and enforcement
iii) Terrorism
Key Functions of Diplomatic Practice
Information Gathering
Policy Advice
Representation
Negotiation
Consular services
POLS 102
Week 6 : Lecture 17
Diplomacy and Globalization
Globalization
At the end of the cold war, there was a shift to a new world “order”
There are however differing understandings of this new world order that include;
continuation of Realist / state-centric model
liberal ideas that focus on the notion of inter-dependence
focus on human rights and emancipation
focus on the phenomenon of globalization, and whether it represents a specific political order
There are various typologies of order that have been identified, which currently exist and which are distinct from each other,viz,
Globalised (Global System) : End of national polities, societies and economies
International (States) : Concern with agenda of sovereignty and stability
World (Humanity) : Concern with agenda of rights, needs and justice
Globalised international (Globalised States) : Agenda of managing relations between states penetrated by global system, but still distinguishable within it
POLS 102
Week 6 : Lecture 18
Diplomacy and Globalization
Globalization (cont)
Elements of the contemporary order
‘Social State’ System : The state’s responsibilities in a contemporary context, have shifted towards taking on more “social welfare” roles. States have to also co-exist in a more inter-dependent world, develop and implement best practice, conform to human / civil rights and therefore have to be more social in their interactions with each other
Identity and the Nation State : There has been a focus on developing new political communities around specific identities, which have been largely nationalist, but also include religious and ethnic
Polarity and the collectivization of security : There has been a shift from a bi-polar system to the largely uni-polar order which is referred to as the age of the single super-power or US hegemony. As regards security, there is a preference for a collective approach to global security through establishing multi-lateral spaces and coalitions
Organization of production and exchange : The political economy of the current order has become internationalized, and there is often tension between the industrialized nations and the developing world in terms of production, trading and financial systems (eg, the issue of child labor). The current financial system is managed and regulated to a considerable degree by the IMF, World Bank and WTO
Multi-lateral management and governance : There has been the emergence of a complex network of international NGOs, which impact on and regulate various aspects of life (eg legal, environmental and economic). There is an ongoing debate about whether these effectively constitute a system of ‘global governance’
Regionalism : There has been a greater emphasis on regional formations, in terms of trade (EU), security (NATO) and general political development (AU). Regions also enjoy greater autonomy, while being part of an inter-dependent system
Liberal rights order : There has been a greater emphasis on developing a universal notion of human rights and liberal rights in particular. However this has also resulted in cultural and religious resistance to liberal ideas being imposed in some parts of the world
North South and the 2 world orders : There is a continued focus on the disparities between the developed north and the under-developed south, however there is also a resistance to the idea that these exist as monolithic blocs. There is a growing set of ideas that see huge variations and inequalities within states and regions and not only between them, which render the north / south divide as outdated
Challenges and issues around Globalization
What is the role of states in the face of a new global order ?
What is the role of citizens / global civil society in the face of a new global order ?
Is there a globalized international order which regulates human life ?
What are the implications of living in this globalized world order (distinct from the cold war order) ?
What future is there for the globalized world order ?
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)