POLS 102
Week 1 : Lecture 1
Introduction : What is Global Politics and International Relations and how do we study these areas
International Relations (IR) is the study of how nations / countries interact with each other within the framework of International Law and the principles laid out in international treaties such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These interactions are also referred to as global politics.
The World has changed since 1945 (end of World War 2)
How has the world changed ?
The collapse of the Berlin Wall, ending the bi-polar world order (Cold War) in 1989
Nuclear issues have intensified since more nations have acquired Nuclear Weapons (other than the 5 original Nuclear powers)
Energy and environmental concerns have become central to the global agenda (oil politics and global warming)
There is a greater focus on global economics / neo-liberalism and questions of poverty and development
Globalization of all aspects of society (political, economic, cultural / religious)
Terrorism and political violence have become serious security concerns
The most significant global event since the turn of the century has been….the events of September 11, 2001 (Attacks on the United States)
The dynamics of September 11 have brought about the introduction of the Global War On Terror
There has also been greater focus on regions of the world that were assumed to not be central to global politics prior to 1945 (eg. Middle East, Asia, Africa)
The role of religion, race, ethnic identity, class and gender have also become central to how countries / citizens of different nations interact with each other
POLS 102
Week 1 : Lecture 2
Introduction : What is Global Politics and International Relations and how do we study these areas
There has been a shift in the study of global politics from simply understanding and analyzing relations between states / nations / countries to focusing on relations between ALL actors on the global stage (including individuals and groups / transnational actors)
One of the ways of giving meaning to understanding WHY and HOW certain events unfold on the global stage is to apply THEORIES that constitute a body of ideas and knowledge which helps to explain these events and their IMPACT on us as human beings
There are primarily 2 ways of seeing the world in IR;
As we would LIKE it to be / OUGHT to be (Normative / Idealism)
As it really IS (Realist)
For many years the Realist worldview dominated the study of global politics / IR, (since 1945) however various other theoretical perspectives have emerged over the last few decades that have challenged realist thought
These include;
Liberalism / Pluralism (Possibility of Co-operation between Actors / Progressive politics)
Marxism / Structuralism (World Politics unfolds within the system of a global capitalist economy)
Constructivism (Human Agency has an important role in shaping world politics)
POLS 102
Week 1 : Lecture 3
Introduction : What is Global Politics and International Relations and how do we study these areas
The most recent phenomenon in world politics (1990 onwards) is that of globalization. This has defined how politics functions at both a local and international level, and basically refers to the interconnectedness of societies, and how one event in one part of the world can have a profound impact on another society elsewhere
Given the shift away from focusing on relations between states to relations between all actors (individual and group), the globalization of politics has meant that there is a focus on EVERY aspect of interaction between these actors, including economic, social and cultural aspects
There are some specific indicators that are characteristics of the globalization of politics. These include;
Economic transformation : World trade is more interdependent than before
Communications : Technological advancements have revolutionized how we communicate with each other / receive information. The global media plays an important role in this
Global culture : There seems to be a greater homogenization of a global culture, with primarily a western / Hollywood character shaping it
Homogenization of societies : Differences between societies appear to be diminishing at a rapid pace, particularly in an urban context
Time and space : The traditional idea of time and space has changed. The electronic / digital medium has changed how humans relate to each other, especially through the internet
Emergence of a global polity : Political allegiances of citizens have shifted from state allegiances to sub- state, transnational and international allegiances
Entrenchment of a cosmopolitan culture. People are thinking globally and acting locally
Emergence of a risk culture : Various epidemics such as Aids and security concerns such as terrorism have emerged, creating a “riskier” global environment, and states can no longer protect their citizens from these risks
There has over the last decade been both criticism and accolades for the impact that globalization has had on the world
One of the key concerns / criticisms has been that the traditional role of the state has been overtaken by the emergence of various other forces
A positive aspect of globalization has been that technological advancements have made many people’s lives easier in many respects, including economic development and standard of living. However some societies have experienced the reverse
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 4
The International Community and its Evolution and IR Theory
Definition of International Society (community) : Relations between politically organized human groupings, which occupy distinctive territories and enjoy and exercise a measure of independence from each other
This community is constituted by states, each of which have a i) permanent population, ii) occupy a defined territory, iii) have a central government, iv) is independent from all other similar governments
The principles on which this community functions is a common understanding / acceptance of the following, self-determination, non-intervention, right of self-defence and sovereignty
The framework which regulates relations in this community is the practice of diplomacy and the application of international law
Earliest record of “international society” dates back to roughly 2400 BC, where ancient city states had formal agreements between them
Brief History
The commonly accepted precursor to the contemporary international community is Ancient Greece/ Hellenic (500 – 100 BC), and Renaissance Italy (1300 – 1500 AD).
Ancient Greece consisted of city states, which were independent of each other but had a common culture.
Rome, eventually become the dominant political power in Europe, but was eventually replaced by other theocratic forces, such as Latin Christendom and Orthodox Christianity.
The Ottoman Empire (Islamic) became a powerful political force in Europe (from the mid 15th century) contesting for political power with Medieval Europe (dominated by Christianity and feudal practices)
There was a period of cultural enlightenment in the arts and sciences in Northern Italy between the 14th and 16th centuries which also brought about political enlightenment, with the establishment of the modern independent (city) states such as Venice, Florence and Milan
The renaissance period was important politically because of its contributions to the ideas of state-craft, realist thinking, power politics and diplomacy. Italian thinker Machiavelli’s writings were very influential in this regard
The influence of the renaissance period was tempered somewhat by the ongoing feudal wars in the rest of Europe.
The Hapsburg (Austro-Spanish) royal dynasty became very powerful in Europe and wanted to exert political hegemony and dominance.
They were however opposed by France and other countries such as Sweden, and a 30 year war broke out between the Hapsburgs and the anti-Hapsburg alliance.
This was eventually ended with the signing of 2 significant treaties, the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) and Treaty of Utrecht (1713), which laid out the basis for what has become the modern sovereign state.
Three key principles defined the Westphalian model of the state; i) the King is in charge in his own realm and every king is independent and equal to every other king, ii) the ruler determines the religion of his realm and iii) a balance of power must exist to prevent any one power become a hegemon in a region
The balance of power principle was demonstrated when France and its allies challenged the Hapsburgs, who were the dominant hegemonic power in Europe
Important political developments in this period were i) a recognition of the nature of sovereignty of defined territories and ii) the separation of state and religion (whereas previously Christianity as a faith had been influencing the functioning of states, referred to as Respublica Christiana
The period of European colonial expansion began formally in the late 1400s, with European exploration and the discovery of the “New World”
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 5
The International Community and its Evolution and IR Theory
Brief History cont…
The spread of European influence globally meant that Europe became the central power in world politics from around the late 15th century – mid 20th century
It was after 1945 that the United States began to arise as the world’s “super-power” and capitalism became truly globalised
There were however certain areas of the world, during the period of the 15th – 20th century that retained political power until they were forced to capitulate to European control. This included the Ottoman empire (based in Turkey) and Japan. These empires were however expected to abide by the norms of international law during the height of their power
The process of decolonization and struggles for self-determination within the colonies of Europe, in the mid – late 20th century marked a significant point of departure in world politics. More states were now members of the UN (created in 1945) and this meant that more territories demanded equal recognition in a global society
The Cold war (1945 – 89) was an important factor in shaping international society. It put into place certain criteria that defined who had power in the world (possession of nuclear technology / arms, the space race, economic independence and oil / energy politics)
The collapse of the Soviet Union, resulted in global capitalism becoming the most significant feature which defined a global society
Problems / Challenges of an International Community
There is an absence of a common underlying culture which cuts across all civilizations. Hence there is an ideological contestation between nations
If there is to be a global covenant unifying all nations, it must service the interests of all members of the international society, and not just a few
There is a huge disparity between the richest and poorest nations of the world, and this inequality means that states cannot engage equally on various levels
The emergence of regional political / cultural alliances (eg. Latin America) has meant that there can be no imposition of a singular culture, or else this regional diversity becomes threatened
Given that since 1945 international boundaries have become frozen, the ability to shuffle territorial boundaries in response to changing socio-political identities has been limited and this has led to greater political conflict over land and wars of self- determination (eg. Bosnia Herzegovina, Palestine / Israel, Kashmir)
The doctrine of non- intervention has meant that there are emerging security concerns where other members of the international community are bound by notions of sovereignty and cannot intervene in a country where there may be a need for outside intervention (eg. Zimbabwe)
International society (independent nations with national laws) is increasingly evolving into a world society (global village, with common concerns), where certain ideas such as environmental protection supersede territorial boundaries, however this comes with new threats. If one member of world society does not co-operate on key issues such as global warning, it inevitably impacts on other members of that society
The evolution of international society into a “world” society raises concerns about the continuing primacy of state sovereignty
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 6
The International Community and its Evolution and IR Theory
IR Theory
Liberalism
Liberalism can be seen as having its early roots in the thinking of Western philosophers such as John Locke, Immanuel Kant and Jeremy Bentham (from the enlightenment period – 18th c). Reason was central to the enlightenment movement. Kant in particular argued against what he called the “lawless state of savagery” in international relations, and called for perpetual peace amongst liberal states
WW 1 brought about a shift in thinking in IR which argued that peace is something that is not natural, but must be constructed. This idea was advanced most clearly by US President Woodrow Wilson with his 14 points document and the theoretical approach of Idealism. Forming a general association of nations that would subscribe to a system of collective security was central to his ideas and hence the League of Nations was formed, followed by the United nations
Liberalism in IR, presumes that the core values of justice, liberty, equality and peace are central to the political project
In 1989, F. Fukuyama wrote the End of History, which celebrated the triumph of liberal thinking, given that socialism had collapsed formally
Broad principles of liberalism in a contemporary context are; Collective security, cosmopolitan model of democracy, democratic peace, democracy promotion, enlightenment ideas, harmony of interests, idealism, integration, interdependence, normative ideals, pluralism, world government
Realism
Realism has intellectual roots in the thinking of people such as Machiavelli (15/16th c), T. Hobbes (16/17th c) and JJ Rousseau (18th c). Their ideas are often referred to as raison d’etat / reason of state.
Realism presumes that the state and its security are the most central features of world politics, and realists are skeptical of the idea of universal moral principles. It is therefore important for the state to have ultimate power
While there are several trajectories of realist thinking, all forms subscribe to what are referred to as the 3 Ss
Statism : Centrality of state and its monopoly to legitimately use force
Survival : All states are concerned with survival, and hence security is the most important item on the agenda
Self Help : In the international system, the state’s structures are the only form of preventing and countering the use of force and each state has to have its own mechanism of doing so, hence the necessity of having defence systems and ensuring a balance of power
Marxism
Emerges largely from the writings of Karl Marx (19th c). His ideas have been interpreted in various ways to give rise to competing schools of Marxist thought
Central idea of Marxism is that history is primarily about the economic development of society and the existence of classes
The basic tension in economics exists between the means of production and the relations of production, which is exploitative
The ultimate goal of Marxist philosophy is to overthrow the prevailing oppressive order and replace with a communist society, where wage labour and private property are abolished, and social relations are transformed
There are various other thinkers such as I. Wallerstein (world systems theory) and A. Gramsci who have applied Marxist ideas to interpret world politics
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 7
The International System : Actors, Organisations and International Law
It is assumed that relations in the international community exist between coherent, legal entities called states
However apart from state relations, there are other entities, such as inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), Multi-national or Trans-national companies (MNCs/ TNCs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), individuals and political formations such as liberation movements
There are almost 200 governments globally, including 191 members of the UN, app. 64000 major transnational companies (eg. Shell), app. 9000 single country NGOs (eg. Sierra Club, USA), 240 IGOs (eg. UN), and 6600 international NGOs (eg. Amnesty International)
The word transnational, has now come to describe the nature of most of these organizations
There are basically 2 types of actors in IR; state and non-state
STATE
The state has traditionally been the central unit for interaction at the international level
There are various challenges in terms of the relations between states, viz
There are different understandings of what state means
A lack of similarity between states
The tension between state systems and an international system
The differences between state and nation
NON-STATE
TNC’s
TNCs have become very influential in global politics and have a global presence by virtue of having branches in countries outside of their country of origin
There are now TNCs based in about 73 countries, 51 of them being developing nations, including 21 African states
The home countries from which most TNCs come from are as follows, 55 from 9 Western European states, 28 - USA, 8 –Japan, 3 – Canada, 2 – Australia, 1 each from Mexico, Singapore, Hong Kong and S. Korea
The impact of TNCs on world politics is significant in that, governments have now mostly lost control of financial flows of capital within and between their national boundaries
Because of the inter-connection of the global economy, a financial crisis in one part of the world, impacts the economies of other nations, eg. Credit crunch in the USA is affecting the banking and stock sector in parts of Asia and Europe
NGOs
There are national and international NGOs, which constitute themselves around a specific interest / issue
International NGOs usually have official recognition with the UN’s division for economic and social matters, viz. ECOSOC
The NGOs with official recognition can consult with ECOSOC on various matters that impact on global communities
An NGO cannot in principle be a profit-making body
Transnational NGOs have been very effective, over the last decade in drawing attention to issues that affect people in various countries at international forums, such as human rights violations, human trafficking, HIV Aids, global warming, etc
Some NGOs come together around a global campaign and form networks, such as Jubilee 2000 (mobilizing for debt-relief)
Non-legitimate groups, Individuals and Liberation movements
These have proliferated the global community in the last 20 years
They include criminal networks (eg. drug cartels), liberation movements who are mobilizing around self-determination (eg. Tamil Tigers, ETA, Hamas, etc) and are sometimes referred to as terrorist groupings, and individuals who may be associated with any of the above (Osama bin Ladin)
POLS 102
Week 2 : Lecture 8
The International System : Actors, Organisations and International Law
The United Nations
The UN was set up in 1945, primarily by the allied states of WW 2
It has over 190 members, and all members must sign onto the UN Charter, which has 4 basic principles;
To maintain international peace and security
To develop friendly relations among nations
To co-operate in solving international problems
Promote respect for human rights
It has various organ bodies / components, which perform specific functions viz,
Security Council
General Assembly
Secretariat
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), which oversees various other bodies of the UN system, such as UNICEF
The Trusteeship Council
The International Court of Justice (ICJ)
The Functions of the UN are to ensure the four basic principles outlined above as well as deal with the contemporary challenges of the world
Challenges
Security and Peacekeeping
Development and Poverty
Environment
Humanitarian work
Health Concerns (HIV Aids, TB, etc)
Reform of the Functioning of the UN
POLS 102
Week 3 : Lecture 9
The International System : Actors, Organisations and International Law
International Law
Can be understood as a set of norms, rules and practices that facilitate a number of goals such as global order, co-existence and development
It derives its origins from natural law (divine law), which evolved into law of reciprocal accord (negotiated between states/ citizens)
It is heavily influenced by the thinking of legal philosophers such as Hugo Grotius (16/ 17th c) and Emerich de Vattel (18th c)
Modern international law has developed 4 distinctive characteristics; viz
Multilateral Legislation : Laws are constantly evolving across multilateral spaces and through formal and informal ways
Consent and legal obligation : It is assumed that states consent to being subjected to international law, and are bound by the notion of customary international law
Language and practice of justification : International Law has its own peculiar language / form of implementation which is unique to international relations
Discourse of institutional autonomy : There is a separation between political and legal powers, which gives international law autonomy
There are some basic terms which are used in international law
Customary International Law : These rules are binding on states, regardless of their explicit consent
Opinio Juris : Belief that a certain form of action is permitted by law
Jus cogens : These are basic norms that are considered so fundamental that states cannot violate them, eg a norm against aggression
Pacta sunt servanda : The principle that states must observe in good faith, the treaties that they are party to
Jus ad bellum : Laws of war that govern when it is permissible to use force or wage war
Jus in bello : Laws governing conduct once a war has been launched
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 10
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
International Regimes
Regimes have emerged as ‘delineated areas of rule-governed activity’ largely within the context of the Cold war
Regimes manage the way in which things work in the international community, eg. ensuring that people can travel safely throughout the globe without being attacked
There are two competing theoretical approaches to understanding how regimes work in the world, viz, realist and liberal
Realists assume that regimes allow states to co-ordinate activities, generate benefits based on national interest, and function according to underlying norms and principles, where power is the central feature
Liberals believe that regimes enable states to collaborate on activities, promote the common good, flourish when supported by a benign hegemon and advance globalization and a liberal world order
Regimes influence and shape how various aspects of life is managed in the global community, such as trade, communication, security, the environment, human rights, etc
There are 4 elements which define a regime;
Principles : Coherent body of statements / declarations about how the world works, eg In international trade the principle of free trade regulates how we sell and buy goods, as it is assumed that free trade maximizes global welfare
Norms : Specifies standards of behavior, eg. In trade, the norm would be to works towards reducing tariffs
Rules : Designed to reconcile conflicts which may arise between principles and norms
Decision making procedures : Defines specific prescriptions for behavior / shapes how decisions are to be taken on an issue, eg. voting, mandates etc
Power (according to realists) is a central aspect of how regimes benefit certain actors, eg. on environmental issues, if large co-operations make profits from polluting the atmosphere, they will apply pressure on states to not agree to reducing carbon emissions
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 11
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
Global Power and Security
The possession, use and exercise of power is the key component that ensures that security can be maintained
As H Bull argues, a balance of power is necessary in the international community to ensure that no one country is able to accumulate too much, and therefore aspire towards imperialist goals
There are various understandings of security. A generally used notion is that ;
“ A nation is secure to the extent to which it is not in danger of having to sacrifice its core values if it wishes to avoid war, and is able, if challenged, to maintain them by victory in such a war” W. Lippmann
Traditionally, security has been largely defined in militarized terms (Realist)
Neo-Realist thinking presumes that not much has changed since 1989, and relies on the following assumptions;
The international Community is anarchic, and there is no central authority capable of controlling state behavior
States that have sovereignty will develop offensive strategies to protect themselves and are therefore potentially dangerous to each other
Uncertainty and a lack of trust prevail in the international community, which will make nations always remain on guard
States will want to maintain their independence, and hence the survival instinct will always drive their behavior
Whiles states are meant to be rational, there will always the possibility of miscalculation, where states do not represent themselves in terms of the real state interests
All of these assumptions, according to neo-realists shape state behavior in terms of security concerns
Another branch of realist thinking, viz Contingent realism, argues that states will not always compete with each other on security issues, but can co-operate, depending on the circumstances. Security is therefore contingent.
Neo-Liberalism (liberal institutionalism), assumes that co-operation between international institutions (eg. economic and developmental) creates opportunities for maintaining security and therefore reducing the likelihood of going to war
Liberal thinking also supports the notion of maintaining democracy, because they believe that democratic states will not go to war with each other. This is referred to as Democratic peace theory
The idea of “Collective security” has become much more prominent in the contemporary period. There are 3 assumptions which shape this approach;
States must denounce the use of military force and agree to settle disputes peacefully
States must broaden their conception of national interest to consider the interests of the global community
States must overcome their fear and mistrust of other states
It is assumed that collective security mechanisms help create a more benign international system, where there is greater trust, confidence and co-operation
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 12
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
Security in the Contemporary Era : Alternative approaches
Social Constructivist Theory
This theory shares many of the assumptions of neo-realism, however believes that the fundamental structures of international relations are social rather than strictly material
This social aspect includes shared knowledge, material resources and practices, which are all, according to social constructivists, given meaning through the interaction and interface of the shared knowledge
This potentially means that meanings can be negotiated through a shared system and help in moving towards a more peaceful world
An example of Constructivist thinking is the role that was played by Russian leader Gorbachev in the late 1980s which led to the end of the Cold War. Once there was an agreement / understanding between USSR and US / West, that the cold war was really over, this was a shared knowledge, arrived at collectively, and had the potential for greater co-operation rather than conflict
Critical Security Studies approaches
Security Studies has become a formal sub-discipline within international relations which engages with security in a rigorous, analytical and critical way and has various streams
Critical Theory
Focuses on the way in which existing social / political relations and institutions have emerged and what can be done to change them, in order to emancipate human beings from restrictive structures
Feminist Approaches
Assumes that writings / works on IR in general, have been conceptualized / articulated from a masculine point of view, and that “security” issues usually advance male interests. They argue that if gender is made more mainstream in IR thought, it will result in a fundamentally different view of security and will force thinking about how patriarchy needs to be challenged
Post-Modernist
Concerns itself with the logic of interpretation and how meanings are constructed, and assumes that once the basic “soft-ware” component of thinking around security is replaced, with new ways of thinking, then behavior will change. This will mean that states will not behave in ways which lead to war more easily, but rather the opposite
Globalist Views of Security
The basic assumption is that a “global” society is more evident today than previously, and it transcends state frontiers, which are now fragmenting
This has had negative aspects such as the emergence of greater nationalist conflict and wars between ethnic communities (eg. Balkans, Rwanda)
According to globalist thinking, what is needed is a new politics of global responsibility, which cuts across dominant interests on a world scale
The acts of 9/ 11 radically transformed the security dynamic in the 21st century by foregrounding concepts such as axis of evil, religious fundamentalism, and shifted the focus on the growing erosion of civil liberties
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 10
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
International Regimes
Regimes have emerged as ‘delineated areas of rule-governed activity’ largely within the context of the Cold war
Regimes manage the way in which things work in the international community, eg. ensuring that people can travel safely throughout the globe without being attacked
There are two competing theoretical approaches to understanding how regimes work in the world, viz, realist and liberal
Realists assume that regimes allow states to co-ordinate activities, generate benefits based on national interest, and function according to underlying norms and principles, where power is the central feature
Liberals believe that regimes enable states to collaborate on activities, promote the common good, flourish when supported by a benign hegemon and advance globalization and a liberal world order
Regimes influence and shape how various aspects of life is managed in the global community, such as trade, communication, security, the environment, human rights, etc
There are 4 elements which define a regime;
Principles : Coherent body of statements / declarations about how the world works, eg In international trade the principle of free trade regulates how we sell and buy goods, as it is assumed that free trade maximizes global welfare
Norms : Specifies standards of behavior, eg. In trade, the norm would be to works towards reducing tariffs
Rules : Designed to reconcile conflicts which may arise between principles and norms
Decision making procedures : Defines specific prescriptions for behavior / shapes how decisions are to be taken on an issue, eg. voting, mandates etc
Power (according to realists) is a central aspect of how regimes benefit certain actors, eg. on environmental issues, if large co-operations make profits from polluting the atmosphere, they will apply pressure on states to not agree to reducing carbon emissions
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 11
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
Global Power and Security
The possession, use and exercise of power is the key component that ensures that security can be maintained
As H Bull argues, a balance of power is necessary in the international community to ensure that no one country is able to accumulate too much, and therefore aspire towards imperialist goals
There are various understandings of security. A generally used notion is that ;
“ A nation is secure to the extent to which it is not in danger of having to sacrifice its core values if it wishes to avoid war, and is able, if challenged, to maintain them by victory in such a war” W. Lippmann
Traditionally, security has been largely defined in militarized terms (Realist)
Neo-Realist thinking presumes that not much has changed since 1989, and relies on the following assumptions;
The international Community is anarchic, and there is no central authority capable of controlling state behavior
States that have sovereignty will develop offensive strategies to protect themselves and are therefore potentially dangerous to each other
Uncertainty and a lack of trust prevail in the international community, which will make nations always remain on guard
States will want to maintain their independence, and hence the survival instinct will always drive their behavior
Whiles states are meant to be rational, there will always the possibility of miscalculation, where states do not represent themselves in terms of the real state interests
All of these assumptions, according to neo-realists shape state behavior in terms of security concerns
Another branch of realist thinking, viz Contingent realism, argues that states will not always compete with each other on security issues, but can co-operate, depending on the circumstances. Security is therefore contingent.
Neo-Liberalism (liberal institutionalism), assumes that co-operation between international institutions (eg. economic and developmental) creates opportunities for maintaining security and therefore reducing the likelihood of going to war
Liberal thinking also supports the notion of maintaining democracy, because they believe that democratic states will not go to war with each other. This is referred to as Democratic peace theory
The idea of “Collective security” has become much more prominent in the contemporary period. There are 3 assumptions which shape this approach;
States must denounce the use of military force and agree to settle disputes peacefully
States must broaden their conception of national interest to consider the interests of the global community
States must overcome their fear and mistrust of other states
It is assumed that collective security mechanisms help create a more benign international system, where there is greater trust, confidence and co-operation
POLS 102
Week 4 : Lecture 12
International Regimes, Global Power and Security
Security in the Contemporary Era : Alternative approaches
Social Constructivist Theory
This theory shares many of the assumptions of neo-realism, however believes that the fundamental structures of international relations are social rather than strictly material
This social aspect includes shared knowledge, material resources and practices, which are all, according to social constructivists, given meaning through the interaction and interface of the shared knowledge
This potentially means that meanings can be negotiated through a shared system and help in moving towards a more peaceful world
An example of Constructivist thinking is the role that was played by Russian leader Gorbachev in the late 1980s which led to the end of the Cold War. Once there was an agreement / understanding between USSR and US / West, that the cold war was really over, this was a shared knowledge, arrived at collectively, and had the potential for greater co-operation rather than conflict
Critical Security Studies approaches
Security Studies has become a formal sub-discipline within international relations which engages with security in a rigorous, analytical and critical way and has various streams
Critical Theory
Focuses on the way in which existing social / political relations and institutions have emerged and what can be done to change them, in order to emancipate human beings from restrictive structures
Feminist Approaches
Assumes that writings / works on IR in general, have been conceptualized / articulated from a masculine point of view, and that “security” issues usually advance male interests. They argue that if gender is made more mainstream in IR thought, it will result in a fundamentally different view of security and will force thinking about how patriarchy needs to be challenged
Post-Modernist
Concerns itself with the logic of interpretation and how meanings are constructed, and assumes that once the basic “soft-ware” component of thinking around security is replaced, with new ways of thinking, then behavior will change. This will mean that states will not behave in ways which lead to war more easily, but rather the opposite
Globalist Views of Security
The basic assumption is that a “global” society is more evident today than previously, and it transcends state frontiers, which are now fragmenting
This has had negative aspects such as the emergence of greater nationalist conflict and wars between ethnic communities (eg. Balkans, Rwanda)
According to globalist thinking, what is needed is a new politics of global responsibility, which cuts across dominant interests on a world scale
The acts of 9/ 11 radically transformed the security dynamic in the 21st century by foregrounding concepts such as axis of evil, religious fundamentalism, and shifted the focus on the growing erosion of civil liberties
POLS 102
Week 5 : Lecture 13
Issues in International Relations : Human Rights and Citizens Concerns, Political Violence and Conflict, Terrorism , Nuclear Proliferation, Identity based violence (Nationalism and Culture)
Humanitarian Intervention
- Is often described as “activity undertaken by a state, a group within a state, a group of states or an international organization which interferes coercively in the domestic affairs of another state. It is a discrete event having a beginning and an end, and is aimed at the authority structure of the target state. It is not necessarily lawful or unlawful, but it does break a conventional pattern of IR”, RJ Vincent
- It is considered controversial because to “intervene” in another state’s affairs would mean to violate the principle of sovereignty, and also Article 2(4) of UN charter, which claims forcible humanitarian intervention as being illegal
- It was never exercised formally during the cold war, and has only really been given attention from the early 1990s in response to growing conflicts around the world
- There are various factors that impact on the question of intervention, such as; i) is it totally justified from a moral and human perspective?, ii) who benefits?, iii) what are the military /security considerations in sending one’s troops to protect citizens of another country?, and iv) what are the power dynamics involved (decisions of security council, etc)?
- There are arguments for and against intervention
- For (Solidarism); i) Protection of Human Rights, ii) Legal interpretation of customary international law, which argues that over a period of time, certain measures / actions become necessary to protect the rule of law and, iii) Intervention is a moral requirement
- Against; i) Breach of sovereignty, ii) Violation of certain UN charter principles and iii) Statism : States should only have an obligation to their own citizens
While interventions didn’t formally take place during the cold war, states did “support” other states in various ways, eg. US military support of Afghanistan in the 1980s, when USSR invaded it, US support of Iraq in its war against Iran
There are examples of states acting in self defence, as opposed to for humanitarian reasons, for eg, Tanzania’s military intervention in Uganda during Idi Amin’s violence against his people, and Vietnam’s operation in Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge period
Post-Cold war interventions have been subjected to much interrogation. Some examples are;
International intervention in Northern Iraq, after it invaded Kuwait and oppression of Kurds (1991)
US / UN intervention in Somalia (1992 – 95)
French intervention in Rwandan genocide (1994)
Nato’s intervention in Kosovo (1999)
Questions have been raised in terms of whether these interventions have been successful or not, from a humanitarian and broader political perspective
Humanitarian interventions after 9/11 have raised questions around whether the Coalition armies in the Global War against Terror have agreed to make alliances with dictatorship governments in order to service the bigger goal of tacking terror, eg. Pakistan
Questions have also been raised around whether the Coalition armies are servicing their own narrow interests or humanitarian ones in the GWAT
POLS 102
Week 5 : Lecture 14
Issues in International Relations : Human Rights and Citizens Concerns, Political Violence and Conflict, Terrorism , Nuclear Proliferation, Identity based violence (Nationalism and Culture)
Human Rights Issues and Citizen’s Concerns : Poverty, Development and Hunger
State-centric approaches to IR until the late 1980s meant that the issue of poverty, development and hunger were not mainstream in the discipline. They were being addressed by “development” specialists
In the 1990’s the focus shifted and various sub-areas have developed within IR, that are tackling the issues critically and substantively
Poverty
Poverty is understood as a condition where people do not have access to resources to satisfy their basic needs, and are often unemployed. It is seen as a problem largely affecting the third world (south)
Development
Development is usually understood as a process that is synonymous with economic growth within the context of a free market economy (liberalism),
It is linked to the idea of poverty, ie, if a society is not developed (low GDP, minimal or no infrastructure and IT), it is poor
There are however various interpretations of development;
If all societies adopted the western model of development, there would be no real poverty and wealth would trickle down to all. There is meant to be a reliance on expert knowledge (top-down), that privileges expansion of the private sphere and advances the idea of capital accumulation and profit
If development was in the hands of ordinary people, then it would be more sustainable and benefit more people at a local level. There is supposed to be a reliance on participatory democracy (bottom up) that advances community interests and the voice of the collective
The end of the cold war however favored the first approach, with a minimalist state and an enhanced role of the market, usually called the “Washington Consensus”
Hunger
Hunger has become a chronic problem in some parts of the world
It is estimated that there are about 827.5 million people in about 50 countries who are starving / malnourished, and about 40 000 die daily from hunger related causes
There are 2 key explanations for why hunger exists
Population growth outstrips growth of food production and there is eventually not enough food for the number of people
Hunger exists because despite an increase in food production, distribution of food / resources is not effective. Access to food is controlled via various factors, such as north south divide, race, class etc
There are various programmes like the Millenium Development Goals that set targets in 2000, in order to reduce poverty and advance development. One key goal is to halve the proportion of people living on less than a dollar a day by 2015
POLS 102
Week 5 : Lecture 15
Issues in International Relations : Human Rights and Citizens Concerns, Political Violence and Conflict, Terrorism , Nuclear Proliferation, Identity based violence (Nationalism and Culture)
Political Violence and Conflict
The 20th/ 21st century has been witness to some of the worst political violence in human history
Some of the key concerns that have shaped the issue of political violence is the development of nuclear technology (cold war), the increase in terrorism and identity based violence
Terrorism
It is commonly accepted that there are four types of terrorist groups, viz, Left wing, right wing, ethno-nationalist/ separatist and religious / sacred
Religious terrorism has dominated from the late 1990s, and has gained prominence since 9/11
The existence of terrorism is usually driven by either cultural or economic reasons
Technology has shaped the way in which contemporary terrorism is unfolding
Nuclear proliferation
Given the dangerous nature of nuclear weapons / technology, there has been a greater focus on trying to reduce their proliferation since the end of the cold war
Their distribution within “rogue” circles has been considered especially problematic, and has created the dynamic of “legitimate” and “non-legitimate” ownership of nuclear technology
Identity based violence (Nationalism / culture)
An increase in nationalist behavior, since the end of the cold war, has resulted in groups / populations waging wars for i) self-determination and political independence, ii) cultural / religious reasons
These wars have led to the re-drawing of national boundaries, eg, the Balkans region
There has been a resurgence also of religious consciousness and contestation for ideological domination
S. Huntington has referred to the phenomenon of religious / cultural contestations as a “clash of civilizations
POLS 102
Week 6 : Lecture 16
Diplomacy and Globalization
Diplomacy
Diplomacy refers to a communications process between international actors that seeks through negotiation to resolve conflict short of war
It has become institutionalized and professionalized over many centuries. The earliest known diplomatic document dates back to 2500 BC
The current diplomatic system has its origins in 15th century Italy, when permanent embassies were first established
There are 2 broad understandings of diplomacy i) traditional diplomacy and ii) new diplomacy
Traditional diplomacy;
refers to the relationship that developed between the newly established European states, as well as the rules and practices that accompanied this phase of diplomacy
This included 2 important principles, i) diplomats should be able to conduct their business without fear/ hindrance (hence diplomatic immunity) and ii) the diplomat was a representative of a sovereign authority and hence should be given the same respect
Agendas included negotiating over territories, and peace discussions, and these discussions were usually conducted in secrecy
New diplomacy
When diplomatic processes failed to stop WW 1, there was a demand for the emergence of a “new” diplomacy
This included 2 basic ideas, i) greater public knowledge / involvement around diplomatic decisions and processes and ii) establishment of an international organization such as LoN and UN to act as a forum for the peaceful settlement of disputes
There were also several modifications to the traditional form of diplomacy, viz, i) states were no longer the only actors and ii) governments were changing the scope of their activities, moving towards caring for the economic welfare of their citizens
The manner in which states engaged with each other evolved, ie, from largely bi-lateral to multi-lateral
The agenda items also changed, introducing the notion of low politics (socio-economic) and high politics (security)
Cold War Diplomacy
- Nuclear Diplomacy : interactions between nuclear armed states
- Crisis diplomacy : Negotiations and communications before / during a crisis phase
- Summit Diplomacy : Direct meeting between heads of state to deal with major issues
Post-Cold War Diplomacy
- Includes dealing with questions of
i) Development (developmental diplomacy)
ii) Peace-keeping and enforcement
iii) Terrorism
Key Functions of Diplomatic Practice
Information Gathering
Policy Advice
Representation
Negotiation
Consular services
POLS 102
Week 6 : Lecture 17
Diplomacy and Globalization
Globalization
At the end of the cold war, there was a shift to a new world “order”
There are however differing understandings of this new world order that include;
continuation of Realist / state-centric model
liberal ideas that focus on the notion of inter-dependence
focus on human rights and emancipation
focus on the phenomenon of globalization, and whether it represents a specific political order
There are various typologies of order that have been identified, which currently exist and which are distinct from each other,viz,
Globalised (Global System) : End of national polities, societies and economies
International (States) : Concern with agenda of sovereignty and stability
World (Humanity) : Concern with agenda of rights, needs and justice
Globalised international (Globalised States) : Agenda of managing relations between states penetrated by global system, but still distinguishable within it
POLS 102
Week 6 : Lecture 18
Diplomacy and Globalization
Globalization (cont)
Elements of the contemporary order
‘Social State’ System : The state’s responsibilities in a contemporary context, have shifted towards taking on more “social welfare” roles. States have to also co-exist in a more inter-dependent world, develop and implement best practice, conform to human / civil rights and therefore have to be more social in their interactions with each other
Identity and the Nation State : There has been a focus on developing new political communities around specific identities, which have been largely nationalist, but also include religious and ethnic
Polarity and the collectivization of security : There has been a shift from a bi-polar system to the largely uni-polar order which is referred to as the age of the single super-power or US hegemony. As regards security, there is a preference for a collective approach to global security through establishing multi-lateral spaces and coalitions
Organization of production and exchange : The political economy of the current order has become internationalized, and there is often tension between the industrialized nations and the developing world in terms of production, trading and financial systems (eg, the issue of child labor). The current financial system is managed and regulated to a considerable degree by the IMF, World Bank and WTO
Multi-lateral management and governance : There has been the emergence of a complex network of international NGOs, which impact on and regulate various aspects of life (eg legal, environmental and economic). There is an ongoing debate about whether these effectively constitute a system of ‘global governance’
Regionalism : There has been a greater emphasis on regional formations, in terms of trade (EU), security (NATO) and general political development (AU). Regions also enjoy greater autonomy, while being part of an inter-dependent system
Liberal rights order : There has been a greater emphasis on developing a universal notion of human rights and liberal rights in particular. However this has also resulted in cultural and religious resistance to liberal ideas being imposed in some parts of the world
North South and the 2 world orders : There is a continued focus on the disparities between the developed north and the under-developed south, however there is also a resistance to the idea that these exist as monolithic blocs. There is a growing set of ideas that see huge variations and inequalities within states and regions and not only between them, which render the north / south divide as outdated
Challenges and issues around Globalization
What is the role of states in the face of a new global order ?
What is the role of citizens / global civil society in the face of a new global order ?
Is there a globalized international order which regulates human life ?
What are the implications of living in this globalized world order (distinct from the cold war order) ?
What future is there for the globalized world order ?
